LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual
1 About this document
2 Overview of LaTeX
3 Document classes
4 Fonts
5 Layout
6 Sectioning
7 Cross references
8 Environments
9 Line breaking
10 Page breaking
11 Footnotes
12 Definitions
13 Counters
14 Lengths
15 Making paragraphs
16 Math formulas
17 Modes
18 Page styles
19 Spaces
20 Boxes
21 Special insertions
22 Splitting the input
23 Front/back matter
24 Letters
25 Terminal input/output
26 Command line
Appendix A Document templates
Concept Index
Command Index
LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual
1 About this document
2 Overview of LaTeX
  2.1 Starting and ending
  2.2 Output files
  2.3 TeX engines
  2.4 LaTeX command syntax
3 Document classes
  3.1 Document class options
4 Fonts
  4.1 Font styles
  4.2 Font sizes
  4.3 Low-level font commands
5 Layout
  5.1 '\onecolumn'
  5.2 '\twocolumn'
  5.3 '\flushbottom'
  5.4 '\raggedbottom'
  5.5 Page layout parameters
  5.6 Floats
6 Sectioning
7 Cross references
  7.1 '\label'
  7.2 '\pageref{KEY}'
  7.3 '\ref{KEY}'
8 Environments
  8.1 'abstract'
  8.2 'array'
  8.3 'center'
    8.3.1 '\centering'
  8.4 'description'
  8.5 'displaymath'
  8.6 'document'
  8.7 'enumerate'
  8.8 'eqnarray'
  8.9 'equation'
  8.10 'figure'
  8.11 'filecontents': Write an external file
  8.12 'flushleft'
    8.12.1 '\raggedright'
  8.13 'flushright'
    8.13.1 '\raggedleft'
  8.14 'itemize'
  8.15 'letter' environment: writing letters
  8.16 'list'
  8.17 'math'
  8.18 'minipage'
  8.19 'picture'
    8.19.1 '\circle'
    8.19.2 '\makebox'
    8.19.3 '\framebox'
    8.19.4 '\dashbox'
    8.19.5 '\frame'
    8.19.6 '\line'
    8.19.7 '\linethickness'
    8.19.8 '\thicklines'
    8.19.9 '\thinlines'
    8.19.10 '\multiput'
    8.19.11 '\oval'
    8.19.12 '\put'
    8.19.13 '\shortstack'
    8.19.14 '\vector'
  8.20 'quotation' and 'quote'
  8.21 'tabbing'
  8.22 'table'
  8.23 'tabular'
    8.23.1 '\multicolumn'
    8.23.2 '\vline'
    8.23.3 '\cline'
    8.23.4 '\hline'
  8.24 'thebibliography'
    8.24.1 '\bibitem'
    8.24.2 '\cite'
    8.24.3 '\nocite'
    8.24.4 Using BibTeX
  8.25 'theorem'
  8.26 'titlepage'
  8.27 'verbatim'
    8.27.1 '\verb'
  8.28 'verse'
9 Line breaking
  9.1 '\\'
  9.2 '\obeycr' & '\restorecr'
  9.3 '\newline'
  9.4 '\-' (discretionary hyphen)
  9.5 '\fussy'
  9.6 '\sloppy'
  9.7 '\hyphenation'
  9.8 '\linebreak' & '\nolinebreak'
10 Page breaking
  10.1 '\cleardoublepage'
  10.2 '\clearpage'
  10.3 '\newpage'
  10.4 '\enlargethispage'
  10.5 '\pagebreak' & '\nopagebreak'
11 Footnotes
  11.1 '\footnote'
  11.2 '\footnotemark'
  11.3 '\footnotetext'
  11.4 Footnotes in a table
  11.5 Footnotes in section headings
  11.6 Footnotes of footnotes
  11.7 Multiple references to footnotes
  11.8 Footnote parameters
12 Definitions
  12.1 '\newcommand' & '\renewcommand'
  12.2 '\providecommand'
  12.3 '\newcounter': Allocating a counter
  12.4 '\newlength': Allocating a length
  12.5 '\newsavebox': Allocating a box
  12.6 '\newenvironment' & '\renewenvironment'
  12.7 '\newtheorem'
  12.8 '\newfont': Define a new font (obsolete)
  12.9 '\protect'
13 Counters
  13.1 '\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol': Printing counters
  13.2 '\usecounter{COUNTER}'
  13.3 '\value{COUNTER}'
  13.4 '\setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}'
  13.5 '\addtocounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}'
  13.6 '\refstepcounter{COUNTER}'
  13.7 '\stepcounter{COUNTER}'
  13.8 '\day \month \year': Predefined counters
14 Lengths
  14.1 Units of length
  14.2 '\setlength{\LEN}{VALUE}'
  14.3 '\addtolength{\LEN}{AMOUNT}'
  14.4 '\settodepth'
  14.5 '\settoheight'
  14.6 '\settowidth{\LEN}{TEXT}'
  14.7 Predefined lengths
15 Making paragraphs
  15.1 '\indent'
  15.2 '\noindent'
  15.3 '\parskip'
  15.4 Marginal notes
16 Math formulas
  16.1 Subscripts & superscripts
  16.2 Math symbols
  16.3 Math functions
  16.4 Math accents
  16.5 Spacing in math mode
  16.6 Math miscellany
17 Modes
18 Page styles
  18.1 '\maketitle'
  18.2 '\pagenumbering'
  18.3 '\pagestyle'
  18.4 '\thispagestyle{STYLE}'
19 Spaces
  19.1 '\hspace'
  19.2 '\hfill'
  19.3 '\(SPACE)' and \@
  19.4 '\ ' after a control sequence
  19.5 '\frenchspacing'
  19.6 '\thinspace': Insert 1/6em
  19.7 '\/': Insert italic correction
  19.8 '\hrulefill \dotfill'
  19.9 '\addvspace'
  19.10 '\bigskip \medskip \smallskip'
  19.11 '\vfill'
  19.12 '\vspace{LENGTH}'
20 Boxes
  20.1 '\mbox{TEXT}'
  20.2 '\fbox' and '\framebox'
  20.3 'lrbox'
  20.4 '\makebox'
  20.5 '\parbox'
  20.6 '\raisebox'
  20.7 '\savebox'
  20.8 '\sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT}'
  20.9 '\usebox{\BOXCMD}'
21 Special insertions
  21.1 Reserved characters
  21.2 Text symbols
  21.3 Accents
  21.4 Non-English characters
  21.5 '\rule'
  21.6 '\today'
22 Splitting the input
  22.1 '\include'
  22.2 \'includeonly'
  22.3 '\input'
23 Front/back matter
  23.1 Tables of contents
    23.1.1 '\addcontentsline'
    23.1.2 '\addtocontents'
  23.2 Glossaries
  23.3 Indexes
24 Letters
  24.1 '\address'
  24.2 '\cc'
  24.3 '\closing'
  24.4 '\encl'
  24.5 '\location'
  24.6 '\makelabels'
  24.7 '\name'
  24.8 '\opening'
  24.9 '\ps'
  24.10 '\signature'
  24.11 '\telephone'
25 Terminal input/output
  25.1 '\typein[CMD]{MSG}'
  25.2 '\typeout{MSG}'
26 Command line
Appendix A Document templates
  A.1 'beamer' template
  A.2 'book' template
  A.3 'tugboat' template
Concept Index
Command Index
LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual
***************************************

This document is an unofficial reference manual (version of October
2015) for LaTeX2e, a document preparation system.

1 About this document
*********************

This is an unofficial reference manual for the LaTeX2e document
preparation system, which is a macro package for the TeX typesetting
program (*note Overview::).  This document's home page is
<http://home.gna.org/latexrefman>.  That page has links to the current
output in various formats, sources, mailing list archives and
subscriptions, and other infrastructure.

   In this document, we will mostly just use 'LaTeX' rather than
'LaTeX2e', since the previous version of LaTeX (2.09) was retired many
years ago.

   LaTeX is currently maintained by a group of volunteers
(<http://latex-project.org>).  The official documentation written by the
LaTeX project is available from their web site.  This document is
completely unofficial and has not been reviewed by the LaTeX
maintainers.  Do not send bug reports or anything else about this
document to them.  Instead, please send all comments to
<latexrefman-discuss@gna.org>.

   This document is a reference.  There is a vast array of other sources
of information about LaTeX, at all levels.  Here are a few
introductions.

<http://ctan.org/pkg/latex-doc-ptr>
     Two pages of recommended references to LaTeX documentation.

<http://ctan.org/pkg/first-latex-doc>
     Writing your first document, with a bit of both text and math.

<http://ctan.org/pkg/usrguide>
     The guide for document authors that is maintained as part of LaTeX;
     there are plenty of others available elsewhere.

<http://ctan.org/pkg/lshort>
     A short introduction to LaTeX, translated to many languages.

<http://tug.org/begin.html>
     Introduction to the TeX system, including LaTeX, with further
     references.

2 Overview of LaTeX
*******************

LaTeX is a system for typesetting documents.  It was originally created
by Leslie Lamport and is now maintained by a group of volunteers
(<http://latex-project.org>).  It is widely used, particularly for
complex and technical documents, such as those involving mathematics.

   A LaTeX user writes an input file containing text along with
interspersed commands, for instance commands describing how the text
should be formatted.  It is implemented as a set of related commands
that interface with Donald E. Knuth's TeX typesetting program (the
technical term is that LaTeX is a "macro package" for the TeX engine).
The user produces the output document by giving that input file to the
TeX engine.

   The term LaTeX is also sometimes used to mean the language in which
the document is marked up, that is, to mean the set of commands
available to a LaTeX user.

   The name LaTeX is short for "Lamport TeX".  It is pronounced LAH-teck
or LAY-teck, or sometimes LAY-tecks.  Inside a document, produce the
logo with '\LaTeX'.  Where use of the logo is not sensible, such as in
plain text, write it as 'LaTeX'.

2.1 Starting and ending
=======================

LaTeX files have a simple global structure, with a standard beginning
and ending.  Here is a "hello, world" example:

     \documentclass{article}
     \begin{document}
     Hello, \LaTeX\ world.
     \end{document}

Here, the 'article' is the so-called "document class", implemented in a
file 'article.cls'.  Any document class can be used.  A few document
classes are defined by LaTeX itself, and vast array of others are widely
available.  *Note Document classes::.

   You can include other LaTeX commands between the '\documentclass' and
the '\begin{document}' commands.  This area is called the "preamble".

   The '\begin{document} ... \end{document}' is a so-called
"environment"; the 'document' environment (and no others) is required in
all LaTeX documents (*note document::).  LaTeX provides many
environments itself, and many more are defined separately.  *Note
Environments::.

   The following sections discuss how to produce PDF or other output
from a LaTeX input file.

2.2 Output files
================

LaTeX produces a main output file and at least two accessory files.  The
main output file's name ends in either '.dvi' or '.pdf'.

'.dvi'
     If LaTeX is invoked with the system command 'latex' then it
     produces a DeVice Independent file, with extension '.dvi'.  You can
     view this file with a command such as 'xdvi', or convert it to a
     PostScript '.ps' file with 'dvips' or to a Portable Document Format
     '.pdf' file with 'dvipdfmx'.  The contents of the file can be
     dumped in human-readable form with 'dvitype'.  A vast array of
     other DVI utility programs are available
     (<http://mirror.ctan.org/tex-archive/dviware>).

'.pdf'
     If LaTeX is invoked via the system command 'pdflatex', among other
     commands (*note TeX engines::), then the main output is a Portable
     Document Format (PDF) file.  Typically this is a self-contained
     file, with all fonts and images included.

   LaTeX also produces at least two additional files.

'.log'
     This transcript file contains summary information such as a list of
     loaded packages.  It also includes diagnostic messages and perhaps
     additional information for any errors.

'.aux'
     Auxiliary information is used by LaTeX for things such as cross
     references.  For example, the first time that LaTeX finds a forward
     reference--a cross reference to something that has not yet appeared
     in the source--it will appear in the output as a doubled question
     mark '??'.  When the referred-to spot does eventually appear in the
     source then LaTeX writes its location information to this '.aux'
     file.  On the next invocation, LaTeX reads the location information
     from this file and uses it to resolve the reference, replacing the
     double question mark with the remembered location.

   LaTeX may produce yet more files, characterized by the filename
ending.  These include a '.lof' file that is used to make a list of
figures, a '.lot' file used to make a list of tables, and a '.toc' file
used to make a table of contents.  A particular class may create others;
the list is open-ended.

2.3 TeX engines
===============

LaTeX is defined to be a set of commands that are run by a TeX
implementation (*note Overview::).  This section gives a terse overview
of the main programs.

'latex'
'pdflatex'
     In TeX Live (<http://tug.org/texlive>), if LaTeX is invoked via
     either the system command 'latex' or 'pdflatex', then the pdfTeX
     engine is run (<http://ctan.org/pkg/pdftex>).  When invoked as
     'latex', the main output is a '.dvi' file; as 'pdflatex', the main
     output is a '.pdf' file.

     pdfTeX incorporates the e-TeX extensions to Knuth's original
     program (<http://ctan.org/pkg/etex>), including additional
     programming features and bi-directional typesetting, and has plenty
     of extensions of its own.  e-TeX is available on its own as the
     system command 'etex', but this is plain TeX (and produces '.dvi').

     In other TeX distributions, 'latex' may invoke e-TeX rather than
     pdfTeX.  In any case, the e-TeX extensions can be assumed to be
     available in LaTeX.

'lualatex'
     If LaTeX is invoked via the system command 'lualatex', the LuaTeX
     engine is run (<http://ctan.org/pkg/luatex>).  This program allows
     code written in the scripting language Lua (<http://luatex.org>) to
     interact with TeX's typesetting.  LuaTeX handles UTF-8 Unicode
     input natively, can handle OpenType and TrueType fonts, and
     produces a '.pdf' file by default.  There is also 'dvilualatex' to
     produce a '.dvi' file, but this is rarely used.

'xelatex'
     If LaTeX is invoked with the system command 'xelatex', the XeTeX
     engine is run (<http://tug.org/xetex>).  Like LuaTeX, XeTeX
     natively supports UTF-8 Unicode and TrueType and OpenType fonts,
     though the implementation is completely different, mainly using
     external libraries instead of internal code.  XeTeX produces a
     '.pdf' file as output; it does not support DVI output.

     Internally, XeTeX creates an '.xdv' file, a variant of DVI, and
     translates that to PDF using the ('x')'dvipdfmx' program, but this
     process is automatic.  The '.xdv' file is only useful for
     debugging.

   Other variants of LaTeX and TeX exist, e.g., to provide additional
support for Japanese and other languages ([u]pTeX,
<http://ctan.org/pkg/ptex>, <http://ctan.org/pkg/uptex>).

2.4 LaTeX command syntax
========================

In the LaTeX input file, a command name starts with a backslash
character, '\'.  The name itself then consists of either (a) a string of
letters or (b) a single non-letter.

   LaTeX commands names are case sensitive so that '\pagebreak' differs
from '\Pagebreak' (the latter is not a standard command).  Most commands
are lowercase, but in any event you must enter all commands in the same
case as they are defined.

   A command may be followed by zero, one, or more arguments.  These
arguments may be either required or optional.  Required arguments are
contained in curly braces, '{...}'.  Optional arguments are contained in
square brackets, '[...]'.  Generally, but not universally, if the
command accepts an optional argument, it comes first, before any
required arguments.

   Inside of an optional argument, to use the character close square
bracket (']') hide it inside curly braces, as in '\item[closing bracket
{]}]'.  Similarly, if an optional argument comes last, with no required
argument after it, then to make the first character of the following
text be an open square bracket, hide it inside curly braces.

   LaTeX has the convention that some commands have a '*' form that is
related to the form without a '*', such as '\chapter' and '\chapter*'.
The exact difference in behavior varies from command to command.

   This manual describes all accepted options and '*'-forms for the
commands it covers (barring unintentional omissions, a.k.a. bugs).

Synopsis:

     \begin{ENVIRONMENT NAME}
       ..
     \end{ENVIRONMENT NAME}

   An area of LaTeX source, inside of which there is a distinct
behavior.  For instance, for poetry in LaTeX put the lines between
'\begin{verse}' and '\end{verse}'.

     \begin{verse}
         There once was a man from Nantucket \\
          ..
     \end{verse}

   The ENVIRONMENT NAME at the beginning must exactly match that at the
end.  This includes the case where ENVIRONMENT NAME ends in a
star ('*'); both the '\begin' and '\end' texts must include the star.

   Environments may have arguments, including optional arguments.  This
example produces a table.  The first argument is optional (and causes
the table to be aligned on its top row) while the second argument is
required (it specifies the formatting of columns).

     \begin{tabular}[t]{r|l}
       .. rows of table ..
     \end{tabular}

A command that changes the value, or changes the meaning, of some other
command or parameter.  For instance, the '\mainmatter' command changes
the setting of page numbers from roman numerals to arabic.

3 Document classes
******************

The document's overall class is defined with this command, which is
normally the first command in a LaTeX source file.

     \documentclass[OPTIONS]{CLASS}

   The following document CLASS names are built into LaTeX.  (Many other
document classes are available as separate packages; *note Overview::.)

'article'
     For a journal article, a presentation, and miscellaneous general
     use.

'book'
     Full-length books, including chapters and possibly including front
     matter, such as a preface, and back matter, such as an appendix
     (*note Front/back matter::).

'letter'
     Mail, optionally including mailing labels (*note Letters::).

'report'
     For documents of length between an 'article' and a 'book', such as
     technical reports or theses, which may contain several chapters.

'slides'
     For slide presentations--rarely used today.  In its place the
     'beamer' package is perhaps the most prevalent (*note beamer
     template::).

   Standard OPTIONS are described in the next section.

3.1 Document class options
==========================

You can specify so-called "global options" or "class options" to the
'\documentclass' command by enclosing them in square brackets.  To
specify more than one OPTION, separate them with a comma, as in:

     \documentclass[OPTION1,OPTION2,...]{CLASS}

   Here is the list of the standard class options.

   All of the standard classes except 'slides' accept the following
options for selecting the typeface size (default is '10pt'):

     10pt  11pt  12pt

   All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the
paper size (these show height by width):

'a4paper'
     210 by 297 mm (about 8.25 by 11.75 inches)

'b5paper'
     176 by 250 mm (about 7 by 9.875 inches)

'executivepaper'
     7.25 by 10.5 inches

'legalpaper'
     8.5 by 14 inches

'letterpaper'
     8.5 by 11 inches (the default)

   When using one of the engines pdfLaTeX, LuaLaTeX, or XeLaTeX (*note
TeX engines::), options other than 'letterpaper' set the print area but
you must also set the physical paper size.  One way to do that is to put
'\pdfpagewidth=\paperwidth' and '\pdfpageheight=\paperheight' in your
document's preamble.  The 'geometry' package provides flexible ways of
setting the print area and physical page size.

   Miscellaneous other options:

'draft'
'final'
     Mark ('draft') or do not mark ('final') overfull boxes with a black
     box in the margin; default is 'final'.

'fleqn'
     Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered.

'landscape'
     Selects landscape format; default is portrait.

'leqno'
     Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the
     right side.

'openbib'
     Use "open" bibliography format.

'titlepage'
'notitlepage'
     Specifies whether the title page is separate; default depends on
     the class.

   The following options are not available with the 'slides' class.

'onecolumn'
'twocolumn'
     Typeset in one or two columns; default is 'onecolumn'.

'oneside'
'twoside'
     Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is 'oneside', except that
     in the 'book' class the default is 'twoside'.

     For one-sided printing, the text is centered on the page.  For
     two-sided printing, the '\evensidemargin' ('\oddsidemargin')
     parameter determines the distance on even (odd) numbered pages
     between the left side of the page and the text's left margin, with
     '\oddsidemargin' being 40% of the difference between '\paperwidth'
     and '\textwidth', and '\evensidemargin' is the remainder.

'openright'
'openany'
     Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default
     is 'openright' for 'book', and 'openany' for 'report'.

   The 'slides' class offers the option 'clock' for printing the time at
the bottom of each note.

   Additional packages are loaded like this:

     \usepackage[OPTIONS]{PKG}

   To specify more than one package, you can separate them with a comma,
as in '\usepackage{PKG1,PKG2,...}', or use multiple '\usepackage'
commands.

   Any options given in the '\documentclass' command that are unknown by
the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with
'\usepackage'.

4 Fonts
*******

Two important aspects of selecting a "font" are specifying a size and a
style.  The LaTeX commands for doing this are described here.

4.1 Font styles
===============

The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX.

   This first group of commands is typically used with an argument, as
in '\textit{TEXT}'.  In the table below, the corresponding command in
parenthesis is the "declaration form", which takes no arguments, as in
'{\itshape TEXT}'.  The scope of the declaration form lasts until the
next type style command or the end of the current group.

   These commands, in both the argument form and the declaration form,
are cumulative; e.g., you can say either '\sffamily\bfseries' or
'\bfseries\sffamily' to get bold sans serif.

   You can alternatively use an environment form of the declarations;
for instance, '\begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}'.

   These font-switching commands automatically insert italic corrections
if needed.  (*Note \/::, for the details of italic corrections.)
Specifically, they insert the italic correction unless the following
character is in the list '\nocorrlist', which by default consists of a
period and a comma.  To suppress the automatic insertion of italic
correction, use '\nocorr' at the start or end of the command argument,
such as '\textit{\nocorr text}' or '\textsc{text \nocorr}'.

'\textrm (\rmfamily)'
     Roman.

'\textit (\itshape)'
     Italics.

'\textmd (\mdseries)'
     Medium weight (default).

'\textbf (\bfseries)'
     Boldface.

'\textup (\upshape)'
     Upright (default).

'\textsl (\slshape)'
     Slanted.

'\textsf (\sffamily)'
     Sans serif.

'\textsc (\scshape)'
     Small caps.

'\texttt (\ttfamily)'
     Typewriter.

'\textnormal (\normalfont)'
     Main document font.

   Although it also changes fonts, the '\emph{TEXT}' command is
semantic, for text to be emphasized, and should not be used as a
substitute for '\textit'.  For example, '\emph{START TEXT \emph{MIDDLE
TEXT} END TEXT}' will result in the START TEXT and END TEXT in italics,
but MIDDLE TEXT will be in roman.

   LaTeX also provides the following commands, which unconditionally
switch to the given style, that is, are _not_ cumulative.  Also, they
are used differently than the above commands: '{\CMD...}' instead of
'\CMD{...}'.  These are two unrelated constructs.

'\bf'
     Switch to bold face.

'\cal'
     Switch to calligraphic letters for math.

'\it'
     Italics.

'\rm'
     Roman.

'\sc'
     Small caps.

'\sf'
     Sans serif.

'\sl'
     Slanted (oblique).

'\tt'
     Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width).

   The '\em' command is the unconditional version of '\emph'.

   (Some people consider the unconditional font-switching commands, such
as '\tt', obsolete and that only the cumulative commands ('\texttt')
should be used.  Others think that both sets of commands have their
place and sometimes an unconditional font switch is precisely what you
want; for one example, *note 'description': description.)

   The following commands are for use in math mode.  They are not
cumulative, so '\mathbf{\mathit{SYMBOL}}' does not create a boldface and
italic SYMBOL; instead, it will just be in italics.  This is because
typically math symbols need consistent typographic treatment, regardless
of the surrounding environment.

'\mathrm'
     Roman, for use in math mode.

'\mathbf'
     Boldface, for use in math mode.

'\mathsf'
     Sans serif, for use in math mode.

'\mathtt'
     Typewriter, for use in math mode.

'\mathit'
'(\mit)'
     Italics, for use in math mode.

'\mathnormal'
     For use in math mode, e.g., inside another type style declaration.

'\mathcal'
     Calligraphic letters, for use in math mode.

   In addition, the command '\mathversion{bold}' can be used for
switching to bold letters and symbols in formulas.
'\mathversion{normal}' restores the default.

   Finally, the command '\oldstylenums{NUMERALS}' will typeset so-called
"old-style" numerals, which have differing heights and depths (and
sometimes widths) from the standard "lining" numerals, which all have
the same height as upper-case letters.  LaTeX's default fonts support
this, and will respect '\textbf' (but not other styles; there are no
italic old-style numerals in Computer Modern).  Many other fonts have
old-style numerals also; sometimes the 'textcomp' package must be
loaded, and sometimes package options are provided to make them the
default.  FAQ entry:
<http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=osf>.

4.2 Font sizes
==============

The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX.  The
table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font size used
(in points) with the '10pt', '11pt', and '12pt' document size options,
respectively (*note Document class options::).

Command                   '10pt'  '11pt'  '12pt'
--------------------------------------------------
'\tiny'                   5       6       6
'\scriptsize'             7       8       8
'\footnotesize'           8       9       10
'\small'                  9       10      10.95
'\normalsize' (default)   10      10.95   12
'\large'                  12      12      14.4
'\Large'                  14.4    14.4    17.28
'\LARGE'                  17.28   17.28   20.74
'\huge'                   20.74   20.74   24.88
'\Huge'                   24.88   24.88   24.88

   The commands as listed here are "declaration forms".  The scope of
the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end
of the current group.  You can also use the environment form of these
commands; for instance, '\begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}'.

4.3 Low-level font commands
===========================

These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and
packages.  The commands listed here are only a subset of the available
ones.

'\fontencoding{ENCODING}'
     Select the font encoding, the encoding of the output font.  There
     are a large number of valid encodings.  The most common are 'OT1',
     Knuth's original encoding for Computer Modern (the default), and
     'T1', also known as the Cork encoding, which has support for the
     accented characters used by the most widespread European languages
     (German, French, Italian, Polish and others), which allows TeX to
     hyphenate words containing accented letters.

'\fontfamily{FAMILY}'
     Select the font family.  The web page
     <http://www.tug.dk/FontCatalogue/> provides one way to browse
     through many of the fonts easily used with LaTeX.  Here are
     examples of some common families:

          'pag'  Avant Garde
          'fvs'  Bitstream Vera Sans
          'pbk'  Bookman
          'bch'  Charter
          'ccr'  Computer Concrete
          'cmr'  Computer Modern
          'pcr'  Courier
          'phv'  Helvetica
          'fi4'  Inconsolata
          'lmr'  Latin Modern
          'lmss' Latin Modern Sans
          'lmtt' Latin Modern Typewriter
          'pnc'  New Century Schoolbook
          'ppl'  Palatino
          'ptm'  Times
          'uncl' Uncial
          'put'  Utopia
          'pzc'  Zapf Chancery

'\fontseries{SERIES}'
     Select the font series.  A "series" combines a "weight" and a
     "width".  Typically, a font supports only a few of the possible
     combinations.  Some common combined series values include:

          'm'  Medium (normal)
          'b'  Bold
          'c'  Condensed
          'bc' Bold condensed
          'bx' Bold extended

     The possible values for weight, individually, are:

          'ul' Ultra light
          'el' Extra light
          'l'  Light
          'sl' Semi light
          'm'  Medium (normal)
          'sb' Semi bold
          'b'  Bold
          'eb' Extra bold
          'ub' Ultra bold

     The possible values for width, individually, are (the percentages
     are just guides and are not followed precisely by all fonts):

          'uc' Ultra condensed, 50%
          'ec' Extra condensed, 62.5%
          'c'  Condensed, 75%
          'sc' Semi condensed, 87.5%
          'm'  Medium, 100%
          'sx' Semi expanded, 112.5%
          'x'  Expanded, 125%
          'ex' Extra expanded, 150%
          'ux' Ultra expanded, 200%

     When forming the SERIES string from the weight and width, drop the
     'm' that stands for medium weight or medium width, unless both
     weight and width are 'm', in which case use just one (''m'').

'\fontshape{SHAPE}'
     Select font shape.  Valid shapes are:

          'n'  Upright (normal)
          'it' Italic
          'sl' Slanted (oblique)
          'sc' Small caps
          'ui' Upright italics
          'ol' Outline

     The two last shapes are not available for most font families, and
     small caps are often missing as well.

'\fontsize{SIZE}{SKIP}'
     Set the font size and the line spacing.  The unit of both
     parameters defaults to points ('pt').  The line spacing is the
     nominal vertical space between lines, baseline to baseline.  It is
     stored in the parameter '\baselineskip'.  The default
     '\baselineskip' for the Computer Modern typeface is 1.2 times the
     '\fontsize'.  Changing '\baselineskip' directly is inadvisable
     since its value is reset every time a size change happens; see
     '\baselinestretch', next.

'\baselinestretch'
     LaTeX multiplies the line spacing by the value of the
     '\baselinestretch' parameter; the default factor is 1.  A change
     takes effect when '\selectfont' (see below) is called.  You can
     make line skip changes happen for the entire document by doing
     '\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{2.0}' in the preamble.

     However, the best way to double-space a document is to use the
     'setspace' package.  In addition to offering a number of spacing
     options, this package keeps the line spacing single-spaced in
     places where that is typically desirable, such as footnotes and
     figure captions.  See the package documentation.

'\linespread{FACTOR}'
     Equivalent to '\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{FACTOR}', and
     therefore must be followed by '\selectfont' to have any effect.
     Best specified in the preamble, or use the 'setspace' package, as
     just described.

'\selectfont'
     The effects of the font commands described above do not happen
     until '\selectfont' is called, as in
     '\fontfamily{FAMILYNAME}\selectfont'.  It is often useful to put
     this in a macro:
     '\newcommand*{\myfont}{\fontfamily{FAMILYNAME}\selectfont}'
     (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::).

'\usefont{ENC}{FAMILY}{SERIES}{SHAPE}'
     The same as invoking '\fontencoding', '\fontfamily', '\fontseries'
     and '\fontshape' with the given parameters, followed by
     '\selectfont'.  For example:

          \usefont{ot1}{cmr}{m}{n}

5 Layout
********

Commands for controlling the general page layout.

5.1 '\onecolumn'
================

The '\onecolumn' declaration starts a new page and produces
single-column output.  If the document is given the class option
'onecolumn' then this is the default behavior (*note Document class
options::).

   This command is fragile (*note \protect::).

5.2 '\twocolumn'
================

Synopsis:

     \twocolumn[PRELIM ONE COLUMN TEXT]

   The '\twocolumn' declaration starts a new page and produces
two-column output.  If the document is given the class option
'twocolumn' then this is the default (*note Document class options::).

   If the optional PRELIM ONE COLUMN TEXT argument is present, it is
typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting starts.

   This command is fragile (*note \protect::).

   These parameters control typesetting in two-column output:

'\columnsep'
     The distance between columns.  The default is 35pt.  Change it with
     a command such as '\setlength{\columnsep}{40pt}' You must change it
     before the two column environment starts; in the preamble is a good
     place.

'\columnseprule'
     The width of the rule between columns.  The rule appears halfway
     between the two columns.  The default is 0pt, meaning that there is
     no rule.  Change it with a command such as
     '\setlength{\columnseprule}{0.4pt}', before the two-column
     environment starts.

'\columnwidth'
     The width of a single column.  In one-column mode this is equal to
     '\textwidth'.  In two-column mode by default LaTeX sets the width
     of each of the two columns to be half of '\textwidth' minus
     '\columnsep'.

   In a two-column document, the starred environments 'table*' and
'figure*' are two columns wide, whereas the unstarred environments
'table' and 'figure' take up only one column (*note figure:: and *note
table::).  LaTeX places starred floats at the top of a page.  The
following parameters control float behavior of two-column output.

'\dbltopfraction'
     The maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be
     occupied by two-column wide floats.  The default is 0.7, meaning
     that the height of a 'table*' or 'figure*' environment must not
     exceed '0.7\textheight' .  If the height of your starred float
     environment exceeeds this then you can take one of the following
     actions to prevent it from floating all the way to the back of the
     document:

        * Use the '[tp]' location specifier to tell LaTeX to try to put
          the bulky float on a page by itself, as well as at the top of
          a page.

        * Use the '[t!]' location specifier to override the effect of
          '\dbltopfraction' for this particular float.

        * Increase the value of '\dbltopfraction' to a suitably large
          number, to avoid going to float pages so soon.

     You can redefine it, for instance with
     '\renewcommand{\dbltopfraction}{0.9}'.

'\dblfloatpagefraction'
     For a float page of two-column wide floats, this is the minimum
     fraction that must be occupied by floats, limiting the amount of
     blank space.  LaTeX's default is '0.5'.  Change it with
     '\renewcommand'.

'\dblfloatsep'
     On a float page of two-column wide floats, this length is the
     distance between floats, at both the top and bottom of the page.
     The default is '12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for a document set at '10pt'
     or '11pt', and '14pt plus2pt minus4pt' for a document set at
     '12pt'.

'\dbltextfloatsep'
     This length is the distance between a multi-column float at the top
     or bottom of a page and the main text.  The default is '20pt
     plus2pt minus4pt'.

'\dbltopnumber'
     On a float page of two-column wide floats, this counter gives the
     maximum number of floats allowed at the top of the page.  The LaTeX
     default is '2'.

   This example shows the use of the optional argument of '\twocolumn'
to create a title that spans the two-column article:

     \documentclass[twocolumn]{article}
     \newcommand{\authormark}[1]{\textsuperscript{#1}}
     \begin{document}
     \twocolumn[{% inside this optional argument goes one-column text
      \centering
      \LARGE The Title \\[1.5em]
      \large Author One\authormark{1},
             Author Two\authormark{2},
             Author Three\authormark{1} \\[1em]
      \normalsize
      \begin{tabular}{p{.2\textwidth}@{\hspace{2em}}p{.2\textwidth}}
        \authormark{1}Department one  &\authormark{2}Department two \\
         School one                   &School two
      \end{tabular}\\[3em] % space below title part
     }]

     Two column text here.

5.3 '\flushbottom'
==================

The '\flushbottom' command can go at any point in the document body.  It
makes all later pages the same height, stretching the vertical space
where necessary to fill out the page.

   If TeX cannot satisfactorily stretch the vertical space in a page
then you get a message like 'Underfull \vbox (badness 10000) has
occurred while \output is active'.  You can change to '\raggedbottom'
(see below).  Alternatively, you can try to adjust the 'textheight' to
be compatible, or you can add some vertical stretch glue between lines
or between paragraphs, as in '\setlength{\parskip}{0ex plus0.1ex}'.  In
a final editing stage you can adjust the height of individual pages
(*note \enlargethispage::).

   This is the default only if you select the 'twoside' document class
option (*note Document class options::).

5.4 '\raggedbottom'
===================

The '\raggedbottom' command can go at any point in the document body.
It makes all later pages the natural height of the material on that
page; no rubber lengths will be stretched.  Thus, in a two-sided
document the facing pages may be different heights.  See also
'\flushbottom' above.

   This is the default unless you select the 'twoside' document class
option (*note Document class options::).

5.5 Page layout parameters
==========================

'\columnsep'
'\columnseprule'
'\columnwidth'
     The distance between the two columns, the width of a rule between
     the columns, and the width of the columns, when the document class
     option 'twocolumn' is in effect (*note Document class options::).
     *Note \twocolumn::.

'\headheight'
     Height of the box that contains the running head.  The default in
     the 'article', 'report', and 'book' classes is '12pt', at all type
     sizes.

'\headsep'
     Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top
     of the main text.  The default in the 'article' and 'report'
     classes is '25pt'.  In the 'book' class the default is: if the
     document is set at 10pt then it is '0.25in', and at 11pt and 12pt
     it is '0.275in'.

'\footskip'
     Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline
     of the page footer.  The default in the 'article' and 'report'
     classes is '30pt'.  In the 'book' class the default is: when the
     type size is 10pt the default is '0.35in', while at 11pt it is
     '0.38in', and at 12pt it is '30pt'.

'\linewidth'
     Width of the current line, decreased for each nested 'list' (*note
     list::).  That is, the nominal value for '\linewidth' is to equal
     '\textwidth' but for each nested list the '\linewidth' is decreased
     by the sum of that list's '\leftmargin' and '\rightmargin' (*note
     itemize::).

'\marginparpush'
'\marginsep'
'\marginparwidth'
     The minimum vertical space between two marginal notes, the
     horizontal space between the text body and the marginal notes, and
     the horizontal width of the notes.

     Normally marginal notes appear on the outside of the page, but the
     declaration '\reversemarginpar' changes that (and
     '\normalmarginpar' changes it back).

     The defaults for '\marginparpush' in both 'book' and 'article'
     classes are: '7pt' if the document is set at 12pt, and '5pt' if the
     document is set at 11pt or 10pt.

     For '\marginsep', in 'article' class the default is '10pt' except
     if the document is set at 10pt and in two-column mode where the
     default is '11pt'.

     For '\marginsep' in 'book' class the default is '10pt' in
     two-column mode and '7pt' in one-column mode.

     For '\marginparwidth' in both 'book' and 'article' classes, in
     two-column mode the default is 60% of '\paperwidth - \textwidth',
     while in one-column mode it is 50% of that distance.

'\oddsidemargin'
'\evensidemargin'
     The '\oddsidemargin' is the extra distance between the left side of
     the page and the text's left margin, on odd-numbered pages when the
     document class option 'twoside' is chosen and on all pages when
     'oneside' is in effect.  When 'twoside' is in effect, on
     even-numbered pages the extra distance on the left is
     'evensidemargin'.

     LaTeX's default is that '\oddsidemargin' is 40% of the difference
     between '\paperwidth' and '\textwidth', and '\evensidemargin' is
     the remainder.

'\paperheight'
     The height of the paper, as distinct from the height of the print
     area.  It is normally set with a document class option, as in
     '\documentclass[a4paper]{article}' (*note Document class
     options::).

'\paperwidth'
     The width of the paper, as distinct from the width of the print
     area.  It is normally set with a document class option, as in
     '\documentclass[a4paper]{article}' (*note Document class
     options::).

'\textheight'
     The normal vertical height of the page body.  If the document is
     set at a nominal type size of 10pt then for an 'article' or
     'report' the default is '43\baselineskip', while for a 'book' it is
     '41\baselineskip'.  At a type size of 11pt the default is
     '38\baselineskip' for all document classes.  At 12pt it is
     '36\baselineskip' for all classes.

'\textwidth'
     The full horizontal width of the entire page body.  For an
     'article' or 'report' document, the default is '345pt' when the
     chosen type size is 10pt, the default is '360pt' at 11pt, and it is
     '390pt' at 12pt.  For a 'book' document, the default is '4.5in' at
     a type size of 10pt, and '5in' at 11pt or 12pt.

     In multi-column output, '\textwidth' remains the width of the
     entire page body, while '\columnwidth' is the width of one column
     (*note \twocolumn::).

     In lists (*note list::), '\textwidth' remains the width of the
     entire page body (and '\columnwidth' the width of the entire
     column), while '\linewidth' may decrease for nested lists.

     Inside a minipage (*note minipage::) or '\parbox' (*note
     \parbox::), all the width-related parameters are set to the
     specified width, and revert to their normal values at the end of
     the 'minipage' or '\parbox'.

     This entry is included for completeness: '\hsize' is the TeX
     primitive parameter used when text is broken into lines.  It should
     not be used in normal LaTeX documents.

'\topmargin'
     Space between the top of the TeX page (one inch from the top of the
     paper, by default) and the top of the header.  The value is
     computed based on many other parameters: '\paperheight - 2in -
     \headheight - \headsep - \textheight - \footskip', and then divided
     by two.

'\topskip'
     Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline
     of the first line of text.  For the standard classes, the default
     is the same as the font size, e.g., '10pt' at a type size of 10pt.

5.6 Floats
==========

Some typographic elements, such as figures and tables, cannot be broken
across pages.  They must be typeset outside of the normal flow of text,
for instance floating to the top of a later page.

   LaTeX can have a number of different classes of floating material.
The default is the two classes, 'figure' (*note figure::) and 'table'
(*note table::), but you can create a new class with the package
'float'.

   Within any one float class LaTeX always respects the order, so that
the first figure in a document source must be typeset before the second
figure.  However, LaTeX may mix the classes, so it can happen that while
the first table appears in the source before the first figure, it
appears in the output after it.

   The placement of floats is subject to parameters, given below, that
limit the number of floats that can appear at the top of a page, and the
bottom, etc.  If so many floats are queued up that the limits prevent
them all from fitting on a page then LaTeX places what it can and defers
the rest to the next page.  In this way, floats may be typset far from
their place in the source.  In particular, a float that is big can
migrate to the end of the document.  But then because all floats in a
class must appear in sequential order, every subsequent float in that
class also appears at the end.

   In addition to changing the parameters, for each float you can tweak
where the float placement algorithm tries to place it by using its
PLACEMENT argument.  The possible values are a sequence of the letters
below.  The default for both 'figure' and 'table', in both 'article' and
'book' classes, is 'tbp'.

't'
     (Top)--at the top of a text page.

'b'
     (Bottom)--at the bottom of a text page.  (However, 'b' is not
     allowed for full-width floats ('figure*') with double-column
     output.  To ameliorate this, use the 'stfloats' or 'dblfloatfix'
     package, but see the discussion at caveats in the FAQ:
     <http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=2colfloat>.

'h'
     (Here)--at the position in the text where the 'figure' environment
     appears.  However, 'h' is not allowed by itself; 't' is
     automatically added.

     To absolutely force a float to appear "here", you can
     '\usepackage{float}' and use the 'H' specifier which it defines.
     For further discussion, see the FAQ entry at
     <http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=figurehere>.

'p'
     (Page of floats)--on a separate "float page", which is a page
     containing no text, only floats.

'!'
     Used in addition to one of the above; for this float only, LaTeX
     ignores the restrictions on both the number of floats that can
     appear and the relative amounts of float and non-float text on the
     page.  The '!' specifier does _not_ mean "put the float here"; see
     above.

   Note: the order in which letters appear in the PLACEMENT argument
does not change the order in which LaTeX tries to place the float; for
instance, 'btp' has the same effect as 'tbp'.  All that PLACEMENT does
is that if a letter is not present then the algorithm does not try that
location.  Thus, LaTeX's default of 'tbp' is to try every location
except placing the float where it occurs in the source.

   To prevent LaTeX from moving floats to the end of the document or a
chapter you can use a '\clearpage' command to start a new page and
insert all pending floats.  If a pagebreak is undesirable then you can
use the 'afterpage' package and issue '\afterpage{\clearpage}'.  This
will wait until the current page is finished and then flush all
outstanding floats.

   LaTeX can typeset a float before where it appears in the source
(although on the same output page) if there is a 't' specifier in the
PLACEMENT paramater.  If this is not desired, and deleting the 't' is
not acceptable as it keeps the float from being placed at the top of the
next page, then you can prevent it by either using the 'flafter' package
or using the command '\suppressfloats[t]', which causes floats for the
top position on this page to moved to the next page.

   Parameters relating to fractions of pages occupied by float and
non-float text (change them with '\renewcommand{PARAMETER}{DECIMAL
BETWEEN 0 AND 1}'):

'\bottomfraction'
     The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occupied by floats
     at the bottom; default '.3'.

'\floatpagefraction'
     The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by
     floats; default '.5'.

'\textfraction'
     Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too
     much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a
     different page.  The default is '.2'.

'\topfraction'
     Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before
     floats; default '.7'.

   Parameters relating to vertical space around floats (change them with
'\setlength{PARAMETER}{LENGTH EXPRESSION}'):

'\floatsep'
     Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default '12pt
     plus2pt minus2pt'.

'\intextsep'
     Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text;
     default '12pt plus2pt minus2pt' for 10 point and 11 point
     documents, and '14pt plus4pt minus4pt' for 12 point documents.

'\textfloatsep'
     Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page;
     default '20pt plus2pt minus4pt'.

   Counters relating to the number of floats on a page (change them with
'\setcounter{CTRNAME}{NATURAL NUMBER}'):

'bottomnumber'
     Maximum number of floats that can appear at the bottom of a text
     page; default 1.

'dbltopnumber'
     Maximum number of full-sized floats that can appear at the top of a
     two-column page; default 2.

'topnumber'
     Maximum number of floats that can appear at the top of a text page;
     default 2.

'totalnumber'
     Maximum number of floats that can appear on a text page; default 3.

   The principal TeX FAQ entry relating to floats
<http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=floats> contains
suggestions for relaxing LaTeX's default parameters to reduce the
problem of floats being pushed to the end.  A full explaination of the
float placement algorithm is Frank Mittelbach's article "How to infuence
the position of float environments like figure and table in LaTeX?"
<http://latex-project.org/papers/tb111mitt-float.pdf>.

6 Sectioning
************

Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units:

'\part'
'\chapter'
     ('report' and 'book' class only)
'\section'
'\subsection'
'\subsubsection'
'\paragraph'
'\subparagraph'

   All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g.,

     \chapter[TOCTITLE]{TITLE}

   In addition to providing the heading TITLE in the main text, the
section title can appear in two other places:

  1. The table of contents.
  2. The running head at the top of the page.

   You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text.
To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument
TOCTITLE that, when given, specifies the text for these other places.

   Also, all sectioning commands have '*'-forms that print TITLE as
usual, but do not include a number and do not make an entry in the table
of contents.  For instance:

     \section*{Preamble}

   The '\appendix' command changes the way following sectional units are
numbered.  The '\appendix' command itself generates no text and does not
affect the numbering of parts.  The normal use of this command is
something like

     \chapter{A Chapter}
     ...
     \appendix
     \chapter{The First Appendix}

   The 'secnumdepth' counter controls printing of section numbers.  The
setting

     \setcounter{secnumdepth}{LEVEL}

suppresses heading numbers at any depth > LEVEL, where 'chapter' is
level zero.  (*Note \setcounter::.)

7 Cross references
******************

One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer
the reader to them, as in "See Figure 3 for more details."

7.1 '\label'
============

Synopsis:

     \label{KEY}

   A '\label' command appearing in ordinary text assigns to KEY the
number of the current sectional unit; one appearing inside a numbered
environment assigns that number to KEY.  The assigned number can be
retrieved with the '\ref{KEY}' command (*note \ref::).

   Thus, in the example below the key 'sec:test' holds the number of the
current section and the key 'fig:test' that of the figure.
(Incidentally, labels must appear after captions in figures and tables.)

     \section{section name}
     \label{sec:test}
     This is Section~\ref{sec:test}.
     \begin{figure}
       ...
       \caption{caption text}
       \label{fig:test}
     \end{figure}
     See Figure~\ref{fig:test}.

   A key name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or common
punctuation characters.  Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished,
as usual.

   Although the name can be more or less anything, a common convention
is to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a
colon or period.  This helps to avoid accidentally creating two labels
with the same name.  Some commonly-used prefixes:

'ch'
     for chapters
'sec'
     for lower-level sectioning commands
'fig'
     for figures
'tab'
     for tables
'eq'
     for equations

   Thus, a label for a figure would look like 'fig:test' or 'fig.test'.

7.2 '\pageref{KEY}'
===================

Synopsis:

     \pageref{KEY}

   The '\pageref'{KEY} command produces the page number of the place in
the text where the corresponding '\label'{KEY} command appears.

7.3 '\ref{KEY}'
===============

Synopsis:

     \ref{KEY}

   The '\ref' command produces the number of the sectional unit,
equation, footnote, figure, ..., of the corresponding '\label' command
(*note \label::).  It does not produce any text, such as the word
'Section' or 'Figure', just the bare number itself.

8 Environments
**************

LaTeX provides many environments for marking off certain text.  Each
environment begins and ends in the same manner:

     \begin{ENVNAME}
     ...
     \end{ENVNAME}

8.1 'abstract'
==============

Synopsis:

     \begin{abstract}
     ...
     \end{abstract}

   Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple
paragraphs.

8.2 'array'
===========

Synopsis:

     \begin{array}{COLS}
     COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\
     ...
     \end{array}

   or

     \begin{array}[POS]{COLS}
     COLUMN 1 ENTRY &COLUMN 2 ENTRY ... &COLUMN N ENTRY \\
     ...
     \end{array}

   Produce a mathematical array.  This environment can only be used in
math mode, and normally appears within a displayed mathematics
environment such as 'equation' (*note equation::).  Column entries are
separated by an ampersand ('&').  Rows are terminated with
double-backslashes ('\\') (*note \\::).

   The required argument COLS describes the number of columns, their
alignment, and the formatting of the intercolumn regions.  See *note
tabular:: for the complete description of COLS, and of the other common
features of the two environments, including the optional POS argument.

   There are two ways that 'array' diverges from 'tabular'.  The first
is that 'array' entries are typeset in mathematics mode, in textstyle
(except if the COLS definition specifies the column with '@p{..}', which
causes the entry to be typeset in text mode).  The second is that,
instead of 'tabular''s parameter '\tabcolsep', LaTeX's intercolumn space
in an array is governed by '\arraycolsep' which gives half the width
between columns.  The default for this is '5pt'.

   To obtain arrays with braces the standard is to use the 'amsmath'
package.  It comes with environments 'pmatrix' for an array surrounded
by parentheses '(..)', 'bmatrix' for an array surrounded by square
brackets '[..]', 'Bmatrix' for an array surrounded by curly
braces '{..}', 'vmatrix' for an array surrounded by vertical
bars '|..|', and 'Vmatrix' for an array surrounded by double vertical
bars '||..||', along with a number of other array constructs.

   Here is an example of an array:

     \begin{equation}
       \begin{array}{cr}
         \sqrt{y}  &12.3 \\
         x^2       &3.4
       \end{array}
     \end{equation}

8.3 'center'
============

Synopsis:

     \begin{center}
      .. text ..
     \end{center}

   Environment to create a sequence of lines that are centered within
the left and right margins on the current page.  If the text in the
environment body is too long to fit on a line, LaTeX will insert line
breaks that avoid hyphenation and avoid stretching or shrinking any
interword space.  To force a line break at a particular spot use
double-backslash '\\' (*note \\::).

   This environment inserts space above and below the text body.  See
*note \centering:: to avoid such space, for example inside a 'figure'
environment.

   In this example, depending on the line width, LaTeX may choose a
break for the part before the double backslash, will center the line or
two, then will break at the double backslash, and will center the
ending.

     \begin{center}
       My father considered that anyone who went to chapel and didn't drink
       alcohol was not to be tolerated.\\
       I grew up in that belief.  --Richard Burton
     \end{center}

   A double backslash after the final line is optional.

8.3.1 '\centering'
------------------

Declaration that causes material in its scope to be centered.  It is
most often used inside an environment such as 'figure', or in a
'parbox'.

   Unlike the 'center' environment, the '\centering' command does not
add vertical space above and below the text.

   It also does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX
formats paragraph units.  If 'ww {\centering xx \\ yy} zz' is surrounded
by blank lines then LaTeX will create a paragraph whose first line 'ww
xx' is centered and whose second line, not centered, contains 'yy zz'.
Usually what is desired is for the scope of the declaration to contain a
blank line or the '\end' command of an environment such as 'figure' or
'table' that ends the paragraph unit.  Thus, if '{\centering xx \\
yy\par} zz' is surrounded by blank lines then it makes a new paragraph
with two centered lines 'xx' and 'yy', followed by a new paragraph with
'zz' that is formatted as usual.  See also the following example.

   This example's '\centering' causes the graphic to be horizontally
centered.

     \begin{figure}
       \centering
       \includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{ctan_lion.png}
       \caption{CTAN Lion}  \label{fig:CTANLion}
     \end{figure}

   The scope of the '\centering' ends with the '\end{figure}'.

8.4 'description'
=================

Synopsis:

     \begin{description}
     \item [FIRST LABEL] text of first item
     \item [SECOND LABEL] text of second item
       ...
     \end{description}

   Environment to make a labelled list of items.  Each item's LABEL is
typeset in bold, flush-left.  Each item's text may contain multiple
paragraphs.  Although the labels on the items are optional there is no
sensible default, so all items should have labels.

   The list consists of at least one item; see *note \item:: (having no
items causes the LaTeX error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing
\item').  Each item is produced with an '\item' command.

   Since the labels are in bold style, if the label text calls for a
font change given in argument style (see *note Font styles::) then it
will come out bold.  For instance, if the label text calls for
typewriter with '\item[\texttt{label text}]' then it will appear in bold
typewriter, if that is available.  The simplest way to get non-bolded
typewriter is to use declaritive style '\item[{\tt label text}]'.
Similarly, get normal text use '\item[{\rm label text}]'.

   For other major LaTeX labelled list environments, see *note itemize::
and *note enumerate::.  For information about customizing list layout,
see *note list::; also, the package 'enumitem' is useful for this.

   This example shows the environment used for a sequence of
definitions.

     \begin{definition}
       \item[lama] A priest.
       \item[llama] A beast.
     \end{definition}

8.5 'displaymath'
=================

Synopsis:

     \begin{displaymath}
       .. math text ..
     \end{displaymath}

   Environment to typeset the math text on its own line, in display
style and centered.  To make the text be flush-left use the global
option 'fleqn'; see *note Document class options::.

   LaTeX will not break the math text across lines.

   In the 'displaymath' environment no equation number is added to the
math text.  One way to get an equation number is to use the 'equation'
environment (*note equation::).

   Note that the 'amsmath' package has extensive displayed equation
facilities.  Those facilities are the best approach for such output in
new documents.  For example, there are a number of options in that
package for having math text broken across lines.

   The construct '\[..math text..\]' is essentially a synonym for
'\begin{displaymath}..math text..\end{displaymath}' but the latter is
easier to work with in the source file; for instance, searching for a
square bracket may get false positives but the word 'displaymath' will
likely be unique.  (The construct '$$..math text..$$' from Plain TeX is
sometimes mistakenly used as a synonym for 'displaymath'.  It is not a
synonym, because the 'displaymath' environment checks that it isn't
started in math mode and that it ends in math mode begun by the matching
environment start, because the 'displaymath' environment has different
vertical spacing, and because the 'displaymath' environment honors the
'fleqn' option.)

   The output from this example is centered and alone on its line.
     \begin{displaymath}
       \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3
     \end{displaymath}
   Also, the integral sign is larger than the inline version '\(
\int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3 \)' produces.

8.6 'document'
==============

The 'document' environment encloses the entire body of a document.  It
is required in every LaTeX document.  *Note Starting and ending::.

Synopsis:

     \AtBeginDocument{CODE}

   Save CODE and execute it when '\begin{document}' is executed, at the
very end of the preamble.  The code is executed after the font selection
tables have been set up, so the normal font for the document is the
current font.  However, the code is executed as part of the preamble so
you cannot do any typesetting with it.

   You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines
will be executed in the order that you gave them.

Synopsis:

     \AtEndDocument{CODE}

   Save CODE and execute it near the end of the document.  Specifically,
it is executed when '\end{document}' is executed, before the final page
is finished and before any leftover floating environments are processed.
If you want some of the code to be executed after these two processes
then include a '\clearpage' at the appropriate point in CODE.

   You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines
will be executed in the order that you gave them.

8.7 'enumerate'
===============

Synopsis:

     \begin{enumerate}
     \item [FIRST LABEL] text of first item
     \item [SECOND LABEL] text of second item
     ...
     \end{enumerate}

   Environment to produce a numbered list of items.  The format of the
label numbering depends on whether this environment is nested within
another; see below.

   The list consists of at least one item.  Having no items causes the
LaTeX error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item'.  Each item is
produced with an '\item' command.

   This example lists the top two finishers in the 1908 Olympic
marathon.

     \begin{enumerate}
      \item Johnny Hayes (USA)
      \item Charles Hefferon (RSA)
     \end{enumerate}

   Enumerations may be nested within a paragraph-making environment,
including 'itemize' (*note itemize::), 'description' (*note
description::) and 'enumeration', up to four levels deep.  The format of
the label produced depends on the place in the nesting.  This gives
LaTeX's default for the format at each nesting level (where 1 is the
outermost level):

  1. arabic number followed by a period: '1.', '2.', ...
  2. lower case letter inside parentheses: '(a)', '(b)' ...
  3. lower case roman numeral followed by a period: 'i.', 'ii.', ...
  4. upper case letter followed by a period: 'A.', 'B.', ...

   The 'enumerate' environment uses the counters '\enumi' through
'\enumiv' counters (*note Counters::).  If you use the optional argument
to '\item' then the counter is not incremented for that item (*note
\item::).

   To change the format of the label use '\renewcommand' (*note
\newcommand & \renewcommand::) on the commands '\labelenumi' through
'\labelenumiv'.  For instance, this first level list will be labelled
with uppercase letters, in boldface, and without a trailing period:

     \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\textbf{\Alph{enumi}}}
     \begin{enumerate}
       \item eI
       \item bi:
       \item si:
     \end{enumerate}

   For a list of counter-labelling commands like '\Alph' see *note \alph
\Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::.

   For more on customizing the layout see *note list::.  Also, the
package 'enumitem' is useful for this.

8.8 'eqnarray'
==============

First, a caveat: the 'eqnarray' environment is depreciated.  It has
infelicities that cannot be overcome, including spacing that is
inconsistent with other mathematics elements (see the article "Avoid
eqnarray!" by Lars Madsen
<http://tug.org/TUGboat/tb33-1/tb103madsen.pdf>).  New documents should
include the 'amsmath' package and use the displayed mathematics
environments provided there, such as the 'align' environment.

   Nevertheless, for completeness and for a reference when working with
old documents, a synopsis:

     \begin{eqnarray}
       FIRST FORMULA LEFT  &FIRST FORMULA MIDDLE  &FIRST FORMULA RIGHT \\
       ...
     \end{eqnarray}

   or

     \begin{eqnarray*}
       FIRST FORMULA LEFT  &FIRST FORMULA MIDDLE  &FIRST FORMULA RIGHT \\
       ...
     \end{eqnarray*}

   Display a sequence of equations or inequalities.  The left and right
sides are typeset in display mode, while the middle is typeset in text
mode.

   It is similar to a three-column 'array' environment, with items
within a row separated by an ampersand ('&'), and with rows separated by
double backslash  '\\').  The starred form of line break ('\\*') can
also be used to separate equations, and will disallow a page break there
(*note \\::).

   The unstarred form 'eqnarray' places an equation number on every line
(using the 'equation' counter), unless that line contains a '\nonumber'
command.  The starred form 'eqnarray*' omits equation numbering, while
otherwise being the same.

   The command '\lefteqn' is used for splitting long formulas across
lines.  It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of
zero width.

   This example shows three lines.  The first two lines make an
inequality, while the third line has not entry on the left side.

     \begin{eqnarray*}
       \lefteqn{x_1+x_2+\cdots+x_n}     \\
         &\leq &y_1+y_2+\cdots+y_n      \\
         &=    &z+y_3+\cdots+y_n
     \end{eqnarray*}

8.9 'equation'
==============

Synopsis:

     \begin{equation}
       math text
     \end{equation}

   Make a 'displaymath' environment (*note displaymath::) with an
equation number in the right margin.

   The equation number is generated using the 'equation' counter.

   Note that the 'amsmath' package has extensive displayed equation
facilities.  Those facilities are the best approach for such output in
new documents.

8.10 'figure'
=============

Synopsis:

     \begin{figure}[PLACEMENT]
       figure body
     \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE}
     \label{LABEL}
     \end{figure}

   or

     \begin{figure*}[PLACEMENT]
       figure body
     \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE}
     \label{LABEL}
     \end{figure*}

   A class of floats (*note Floats::).  Because they cannot be split
across pages, they are not typeset in sequence with the normal text but
instead are "floated" to a convenient place, such as the top of a
following page.

   For the possible values of PLACEMENT and their effect on the float
placement algorithm, see *note Floats::.

   The starred form 'figure*' is used when a document is in
double-column mode (*note \twocolumn::).  It produces a figure that
spans both columns, at the top of the page.  To add the possibility of
placing at a page bottom see the discussion of PLACEMENT 'b' in *note
Floats::.

   The figure body is typeset in a 'parbox' of width '\textwidth' and so
it can contain text, commands, etc.

   The label is optional; it is used for cross-references (*note Cross
references::).  The optional '\caption' command specifies caption text
for the figure.  By default it is numbered.  If LOFTITLE is present, it
is used in the list of figures instead of TITLE (*note Tables of
contents::).

   This example makes a figure out of a graphic.  It requires one of the
packages 'graphics' or 'graphicx'.  The graphic, with its caption, will
be placed at the top of a page or, if it is pushed to the end of the
document, on a page of floats.

     \begin{figure}[t]
       \centering
       \includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{CTANlion.png}
       \caption{The CTAN lion, by Duane Bibby}
     \end{figure}

8.11 'filecontents': Write an external file
===========================================

Synopsis:

     \begin{filecontents}{FILENAME}
       TEXT
     \end{filecontents}

   or

     \begin{filecontents*}{FILENAME}
       TEXT
     \end{filecontents*}

   Create a file named FILENAME and fill it with TEXT.  The unstarred
version of the environment 'filecontents' prefixes the content of the
created file with a header; see the example below.  The starred version
'filecontents*' does not include the header.

   This environment can be used anywhere in the preamble, although it
often appears before the '\documentclass' command.  It is typically used
when a source file requires a nonstandard style or class file.  The
environment will write that file to the directory containing the source
and thus make the source file self-contained.  Another use is to include
'bib' references in the file, again to make it self-contained.

   The environment checks whether a file of that name already exists and
if so, does not do anything.  There is a 'filecontents' package that
redefines the 'filecontents' environment so that instead of doing
nothing in that case, it will overwrite the existing file.

   For example, this document

     \documentclass{article}
     \begin{filecontents}{JH.sty}
     \newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron}
     \end{filecontents}
     \usepackage{JH}
     \begin{document}
     Article by \myname.
     \end{document}

   produces this file 'JH.sty'.

     %% LaTeX2e file `JH.sty'
     %% generated by the `filecontents' environment
     %% from source `test' on 2015/10/12.
     %%
     \newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron}

8.12 'flushleft'
================

     \begin{flushleft}
     LINE1 \\
     LINE2 \\
     ...
     \end{flushleft}

   The 'flushleft' environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged
right.  Each line must be terminated with the string '\\'.

8.12.1 '\raggedright'
---------------------

The '\raggedright' declaration corresponds to the 'flushleft'
environment.  This declaration can be used inside an environment such as
'quote' or in a 'parbox'.

   Unlike the 'flushleft' environment, the '\raggedright' command does
not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph
units.  To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command that ends the
paragraph unit.

8.13 'flushright'
=================

     \begin{flushright}
     LINE1 \\
     LINE2 \\
     ...
     \end{flushright}

   The 'flushright' environment allows you to create a paragraph
consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged
left.  Each line must be terminated with the control sequence '\\'.

8.13.1 '\raggedleft'
--------------------

The '\raggedleft' declaration corresponds to the 'flushright'
environment.  This declaration can be used inside an environment such as
'quote' or in a 'parbox'.

   Unlike the 'flushright' environment, the '\raggedleft' command does
not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX formats paragraph
units.  To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the
declaration must contain the blank line or '\end' command that ends the
paragraph unit.

8.14 'itemize'
==============

Synopsis:

     \begin{itemize}
     \item ITEM1
     \item ITEM2
     ...
     \end{itemize}

   The 'itemize' environment produces an "unordered", "bulleted" list.
Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep.
They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such
as 'enumerate' (*note enumerate::).

   Each item of an 'itemize' list begins with an '\item' command.  There
must be at least one '\item' command within the environment.

   By default, the marks at each level look like this:

  1. * (bullet)
  2. -- (bold en-dash)
  3. * (asterisk)
  4. .  (centered dot, rendered here as a period)

   The 'itemize' environment uses the commands '\labelitemi' through
'\labelitemiv' to produce the default label.  So, you can use
'\renewcommand' to change the labels.  For instance, to have the first
level use diamonds:

     \renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$}

   The '\leftmargini' through '\leftmarginvi' parameters define the
distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and the
left margin of the list.  By convention, '\leftmargin' is set to the
appropriate '\leftmarginN' when a new level of nesting is entered.

   The defaults vary from '.5em' (highest levels of nesting) to '2.5em'
(first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode.  This example
greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists:

     \setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em

   Some parameters that affect list formatting:

'\itemindent'
     Extra indentation before each item in a list; default zero.

'\labelsep'
     Space between the label and text of an item; default '.5em'.

'\labelwidth'
     Width of the label; default '2em', or '1.5em' in two-column mode.

'\listparindent'
     Extra indentation added to second and subsequent paragraphs within
     a list item; default '0pt'.

'\rightmargin'
     Horizontal distance between the right margin of the list and the
     enclosing environment; default '0pt', except in the 'quote',
     'quotation', and 'verse' environments, where it is set equal to
     '\leftmargin'.

   Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather
loose, by default).

'\itemsep'
     Vertical space between items.  The default is '2pt plus1pt
     minus1pt' for '10pt' documents, '3pt plus2pt minus1pt' for '11pt',
     and '4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt' for '12pt'.

'\parsep'
     Extra vertical space between paragraphs within a list item.
     Defaults are the same as '\itemsep'.

'\topsep'
     Vertical space between the first item and the preceding paragraph.
     For top-level lists, the default is '8pt plus2pt minus4pt' for
     '10pt' documents, '9pt plus3pt minus5pt' for '11pt', and '10pt
     plus4pt minus6pt' for '12pt'.  These are reduced for nested lists.

'\partopsep'
     Extra space added to '\topsep' when the list environment starts a
     paragraph.  The default is '2pt plus1pt minus1pt' for '10pt'
     documents, '3pt plus1pt minus1pt' for '11pt', and '3pt plus2pt
     minus2pt' for '12pt'.

   Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide
space between items.  Here is an example defining an 'itemize*'
environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs
within a single item ('\parskip' is not list-specific, *note
\parskip::):

     \newenvironment{itemize*}%
       {\begin{itemize}%
         \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}%
         \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}%
         \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}%
       {\end{itemize}}

8.15 'letter' environment: writing letters
==========================================

This environment is used for creating letters.  *Note Letters::.

8.16 'list'
===========

The 'list' environment is a generic environment which is used for
defining many of the more specific environments.  It is seldom used in
documents, but often in macros.

     \begin{list}{LABELING}{SPACING}
     \item ITEM1
     \item ITEM2
     ...
     \end{list}

   The mandatory LABELING argument specifies how items should be
labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to '\item').  This
argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the label.
It can and usually does contain other LaTeX commands.

   The mandatory SPACING argument contains commands to change the
spacing parameters for the list.  This argument will most often be
empty, i.e., '{}', which leaves the default spacing.

   The width used for typesetting the list items is specified by
'\linewidth' (*note Page layout parameters::).

Synopsis:

     \item text of item

   or
     \item[OPTIONAL LABEL] text of item

   An entry in a list.  The entries are prefixed by a label, whose
default depends on the list type.

   Because the optional argument OPTIONAL LABEL is surrounded by square
brackets ('[' and ']'), to use square brackets inside the optional
argument you must hide them inside curly braces, as in '\item[Close
square bracket, {]}]'.  Similarly, to use an open square bracket as
first character in the text of the item, also hide it inside curly
braces.  *Note LaTeX command syntax::.

   In this example the 'enumerate' list has two items that use the
default label and one that uses the optional label.

     \begin{enumerate}
       \item Moe
       \item[sometimes] Shemp
       \item Larry
     \end{enumerate}

   The first item is labelled '1.', the second item is labelled
'sometimes', and the third item is labelled '2.' (note that, because of
the optional label in the second item, the third item does not get a
'3.').

8.17 'math'
===========

Synopsis:

     \begin{math}
     MATH
     \end{math}

   The 'math' environment inserts the given MATH within the running
text.  '\(...\)' and '$...$' are synonyms.  *Note Math formulas::.

8.18 'minipage'
===============

     \begin{minipage}[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH}
     TEXT
     \end{minipage}

   The 'minipage' environment typesets its body TEXT in a block that
will not be broken across pages.  This is similar to the '\parbox'
command (*note \parbox::), but unlike '\parbox', other paragraph-making
environments can be used inside a minipage.

   The arguments are the same as for '\parbox' (*note \parbox::).

   By default, paragraphs are not indented in the 'minipage'
environment.  You can restore indentation with a command such as
'\setlength{\parindent}{1pc}' command.

   Footnotes in a 'minipage' environment are handled in a way that is
particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables.  A
'\footnote' or '\footnotetext' command puts the footnote at the bottom
of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the
'\mpfootnote' counter instead of the ordinary 'footnote' counter (*note
Counters::).

   However, don't put one minipage inside another if you are using
footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.

8.19 'picture'
==============

     \begin{picture}(WIDTH,HEIGHT)(XOFFSET,YOFFSET)
     ... PICTURE COMMANDS ...
     \end{picture}

   The 'picture' environment allows you to create just about any kind of
picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles.  You tell
LaTeX where to put things in the picture by specifying their
coordinates.  A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and
a minus sign--a number like '5', '0.3' or '-3.1416'.  A coordinate
specifies a length in multiples of the unit length '\unitlength', so if
'\unitlength' has been set to '1cm', then the coordinate 2.54 specifies
a length of 2.54 centimeters.

   You should only change the value of '\unitlength', using the
'\setlength' command, outside of a 'picture' environment.  The default
value is '1pt'.

   A "position" is a pair of coordinates, such as '(2.4,-5)', specifying
the point with x-coordinate '2.4' and y-coordinate '-5'.  Coordinates
are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, which is
normally at the lower-left corner of the picture.  Note that when a
position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; the
parentheses serve to delimit the argument.

   The 'picture' environment has one mandatory argument which is a
position (WIDTH,HEIGHT), which specifies the size of the picture.  The
environment produces a rectangular box with these WIDTH and HEIGHT.

   The 'picture' environment also has an optional position argument
(XOFFSET,YOFFSET), following the size argument, that can change the
origin.  (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not
contained in square brackets.)  The optional argument gives the
coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture
(thereby determining the origin).  For example, if '\unitlength' has
been set to '1mm', the command

     \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)

produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters,
whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right
corner is therefore the point (110,220).  When you first draw a picture,
you typically omit the optional argument, leaving the origin at the
lower-left corner.  If you then want to modify your picture by shifting
everything, you can just add the appropriate optional argument.

   The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of
the picture.  This need bear no relation to how large the picture really
is; LaTeX will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or
even off the page.  The picture's nominal size is used by LaTeX in
determining how much room to leave for it.

   Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the '\put' command.
The command

     \put (11.3,-.3){...}

puts the object specified by '...' in the picture, with its reference
point at coordinates (11.3,-.3).  The reference points for various
objects will be described below.

   The '\put' command creates an "LR box".  You can put anything that
can go in an '\mbox' (*note \mbox::) in the text argument of the '\put'
command.  When you do this, the reference point will be the lower left
corner of the box.

   The 'picture' commands are described in the following sections.

8.19.1 '\circle'
----------------

Synopsis:

     \circle[*]{DIAMETER}

   The '\circle' command produces a circle with a diameter as close to
the specified one as possible.  The '*'-form of the command draws a
solid circle.

   Circles up to 40pt can be drawn.

8.19.2 '\makebox'
-----------------

Synopsis:

     \makebox(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[POSITION]{TEXT}

   The '\makebox' command for the picture environment is similar to the
normal '\makebox' command except that you must specify a WIDTH and
HEIGHT in multiples of '\unitlength'.

   The optional argument, '[POSITION]', specifies the quadrant that your
TEXT appears in.  You may select up to two of the following:

't'
     Moves the item to the top of the rectangle.

'b'
     Moves the item to the bottom.

'l'
     Moves the item to the left.

'r'
     Moves the item to the right.

   *Note \makebox::.

8.19.3 '\framebox'
------------------

Synopsis:

     \framebox(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[POS]{...}

   The '\framebox' command is like '\makebox' (see previous section),
except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it
creates.

   The '\framebox' command produces a rule of thickness '\fboxrule', and
leaves a space '\fboxsep' between the rule and the contents of the box.

8.19.4 '\dashbox'
-----------------

Draws a box with a dashed line.  Synopsis:

     \dashbox{DLEN}(RWIDTH,RHEIGHT)[POS]{TEXT}

   '\dashbox' creates a dashed rectangle around TEXT in a 'picture'
environment.  Dashes are DLEN units long, and the rectangle has overall
width RWIDTH and height RHEIGHT.  The TEXT is positioned at optional
POS.

   A dashed box looks best when the RWIDTH and RHEIGHT are multiples of
the DLEN.

8.19.5 '\frame'
---------------

Synopsis:

     \frame{TEXT}

   The '\frame' command puts a rectangular frame around TEXT.  The
reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame.  No extra space
is put between the frame and the object.

8.19.6 '\line'
--------------

Synopsis:

     \line(XSLOPE,YSLOPE){LENGTH}

   The '\line' command draws a line with the given LENGTH and slope
XSLOPE/YSLOPE.

   Standard LaTeX can only draw lines with SLOPE = x/y, where x and y
have integer values from -6 through 6.  For lines of any slope, and
plenty of other shapes, see 'pict2e' and many other packages on CTAN.

8.19.7 '\linethickness'
-----------------------

The '\linethickness{DIM}' command declares the thickness of horizontal
and vertical lines in a picture environment to be DIM, which must be a
positive length.

   '\linethickness' does not affect the thickness of slanted lines,
circles, or the quarter circles drawn by '\oval'.

8.19.8 '\thicklines'
--------------------

The '\thicklines' command is an alternate line thickness for horizontal
and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. *note \linethickness::
and *note \thinlines::.

8.19.9 '\thinlines'
-------------------

The '\thinlines' command is the default line thickness for horizontal
and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. *note \linethickness::
and *note \thicklines::.

8.19.10 '\multiput'
-------------------

Synopsis:

     \multiput(X,Y)(DELTA_X,DELTA_Y){N}{OBJ}

   The '\multiput' command copies the object OBJ in a regular pattern
across a picture.  OBJ is first placed at position (x,y), then at
(x+\delta x,y+\delta y), and so on, N times.

8.19.11 '\oval'
---------------

Synopsis:

     \oval(WIDTH,HEIGHT)[PORTION]

   The '\oval' command produces a rectangle with rounded corners.  The
optional argument PORTION allows you to produce only half of the oval
via the following:

't'
     selects the top half;
'b'
     selects the bottom half;
'r'
     selects the right half;
'l'
     selects the left half.

   It is also possible to produce only one quarter of the oval by
setting PORTION to 'tr', 'br', 'bl', or 'tl'.

   The "corners" of the oval are made with quarter circles with a
maximum radius of 20pt, so large "ovals" will look more like boxes with
rounded corners.

8.19.12 '\put'
--------------

Synopsis:

     \put(XCOORD,YCOORD){ ... }

   The '\put' command places the material specified by the (mandatory)
argument in braces at the given coordinate, (XCOORD,YCOORD).

8.19.13 '\shortstack'
---------------------

Synopsis:

     \shortstack[POSITION]{...\\...\\...}

   The '\shortstack' command produces a stack of objects.  The valid
positions are:

'r'
     Move the objects to the right of the stack.
'l'
     Move the objects to the left of the stack
'c'
     Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default)

   Objects are separated with '\\'.

8.19.14 '\vector'
-----------------

Synopsis:

     \vector(XSLOPE,YSLOPE){LENGTH}

   The '\vector' command draws a line with an arrow of the specified
length and slope.  The XSLOPE and YSLOPE values must lie between -4 and
+4, inclusive.

8.20 'quotation' and 'quote'
============================

Synopsis:

     \begin{quotation}
     TEXT
     \end{quotation}

   or

     \begin{quote}
     TEXT
     \end{quote}

   Include a quotation.

   In both environments, margins are indented on both sides by
'\leftmargin' and the text is justified at both.  As with the main text,
leaving a blank line produces a new paragraph.

   To compare the two: in the 'quotation' environment, paragraphs are
indented by 1.5em and the space between paragraphs is small, '0pt plus
1pt'.  In the 'quote' environment, paragraphs are not indented and there
is vertical space between paragraphs (it is the rubber length
'\parsep').  Thus, the 'quotation' environment may be more suitable for
documents where new paragraphs are marked by an indent rather than by a
vertical separation.  In addition, 'quote' may be more suitable for a
short quotation or a sequence of short quotations.

     \begin{quotation}
     \it Four score and seven years ago
       .. shall not perish from the earth.
     \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---Abraham Lincoln
     \end{quotation}

8.21 'tabbing'
==============

Synopsis:

     \begin{tabbing}
     ROW1COL1 \= ROW1COL2 \= ROW1COL3 \= ROW1COL4 \\
     ROW2COL1 \>                \> ROW2COL3 \\
     ...
     \end{tabbing}

   The 'tabbing' environment provides a way to align text in columns.
It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as was done on an
ordinary typewriter.  It is best suited for cases where the width of
each column is constant and known in advance.

   This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the 'tabular'
environment.

   The following commands can be used inside a 'tabbing' environment:

'\\ (tabbing)'
     End a line.

'\= (tabbing)'
     Sets a tab stop at the current position.

'\> (tabbing)'
     Advances to the next tab stop.

'\<'
     Put following text to the left of the local margin (without
     changing the margin).  Can only be used at the start of the line.

'\+'
     Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands
     one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if necessary.

'\-'
     Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands
     one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if necessary.

'\' (tabbing)'
     Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column,
     i.e., everything from the most recent '\>', '\<', '\'', '\\', or
     '\kill' command, to the right of the previous column, flush against
     the current column's tab stop.

'\` (tabbing)'
     Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including
     tab stop 0.  However, it can't move text to the right of the last
     column because there's no tab stop there.  The '\`' command moves
     all the text that follows it, up to the '\\' or '\end{tabbing}'
     command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing
     environment.  There must be no '\>' or '\'' command between the
     '\`' and the command that ends the line.

'\a (tabbing)'
     In a 'tabbing' environment, the commands '\=', '\'' and '\`' do not
     produce accents as usual (*note Accents::).  Instead, the commands
     '\a=', '\a'' and '\a`' are used.

'\kill'
     Sets tab stops without producing text.  Works just like '\\' except
     that it throws away the current line instead of producing output
     for it.  The effect of any '\=', '\+' or '\-' commands in that line
     remain in effect.

'\poptabs'
     Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last '\pushtabs'.

'\pushtabs'
     Saves all current tab stop positions.  Useful for temporarily
     changing tab stop positions in the middle of a 'tabbing'
     environment.

'\tabbingsep'
     Distance to left of tab stop moved by '\''.

   This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format:

     \begin{tabbing}
     function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\
              \> begin \= \+ \\
                    \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\
                             fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\
                       else \+ \\
                             fact := 1; \-\- \\
                 end;\\
     \end{tabbing}

8.22 'table'
============

Synopsis:

     \begin{table}[PLACEMENT]
       table body
     \caption[LOFTITLE]{TITLE}
     \label{LABEL}
     \end{table}

   A class of floats (*note Floats::).  Because they cannot be split
across pages, they are not typeset in sequence with the normal text but
instead are "floated" to a convenient place, such as the top of a
following page.

   For the possible values of PLACEMENT and their effect on the float
placement algorithm, see *note Floats::.

   The table body is typeset in a 'parbox' of width '\textwidth' and so
it can contain text, commands, etc.

   The label is optional; it is used for cross-references (*note Cross
references::).  The optional '\caption' command specifies caption text
for the table.  By default it is numbered.  If LOTTITLE is present, it
is used in the list of tables instead of TITLE (*note Tables of
contents::).

   In this example the table and caption will float to the bottom of a
page, unless it is pushed to a float page at the end.

     \begin{table}[b]
       \centering
       \begin{tabular}{r|p{2in}} \hline
         One &The loneliest number \\
         Two &Can be as sad as one.
              It's the loneliest number since the number one.
       \end{tabular}
       \caption{Cardinal virtues}
       \label{tab:CardinalVirtues}
     \end{table}

8.23 'tabular'
==============

Synopsis:

     \begin{tabular}[POS]{COLS}
     column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\
       ...
     \end{tabular}

or

     \begin{tabular*}{WIDTH}[POS]{COLS}
     column 1 entry &column 2 entry ... &column n entry \\
       ...
     \end{tabular*}

   These environments produce a table, a box consisting of a sequence of
horizontal rows.  Each row consists of items that are aligned vertically
in columns.  This illustrates many of the features.

     \begin{tabular}{l|l}
       \textit{Player name}  &\textit{Career home runs}  \\
       \hline
       Hank Aaron  &755 \\
       Babe Ruth   &714
     \end{tabular}

   The vertical format of two left-aligned columns, with a vertical bar
between them, is specified in 'tabular''s argument '{l|l}'.  Columns are
separated with an ampersand '&'.  A horizontal rule between two rows is
created with '\hline'.  The end of each row is marked with a double
backslash '\\'.  This '\\' is optional after the last row unless an
'\hline' command follows, to put a rule below the table.

   The required and optional arguments to 'tabular' consist of:

WIDTH
     Required for 'tabular*', not allowed for 'tabular'.  Specifies the
     width of the 'tabular*' environment.  The space between columns
     should be rubber, as with '@{\extracolsep{\fill}}', to allow the
     table to stretch or shrink to make the specified width, or else you
     are likely to get the 'Underfull \hbox (badness 10000) in alignment
     ..' warning.

POS
     Optional.  Specifies the table's vertical position.  The default is
     to align the table so its vertical center matches the baseline of
     the surrounding text.  There are two other possible alignments: 't'
     aligns the table so its top row matches the baseline of the
     surrounding text, and 'b' aligns on the bottom row.

     This only has an effect if there is other text.  In the common case
     of a 'tabular' alone in a 'center' environment this option makes no
     difference.

COLS
     Required.  Specifies the formatting of columns.  It consists of a
     sequence of the following specifiers, corresponding to the types of
     column and intercolumn material.

     'l'
          A column of left-aligned items.

     'r'
          A column of right-aligned items.

     'c'
          A column of centered items.

     '|'
          A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment.

     '@{TEXT OR SPACE}'
          This inserts TEXT OR SPACE at this location in every row.  The
          TEXT OR SPACE material is typeset in LR mode.  This text is
          fragile (*note \protect::).

          This specifier is optional: unless you put in your own
          @-expression then LaTeX's book, article, and report classes
          will put on either side of each column a space of length
          '\tabcolsep', which by default is '6pt'.  That is, by default
          adjacent columns are separated by 12pt (so '\tabcolsep' is
          misleadingly-named since it is not the separation between
          tabular columns).  Also by default a space of 6pt comes before
          the first column as well as after the final column, unless you
          put a '@{..}' or '|' there.

          If you override the default and use an @-expression then you
          must insert any desired space yourself, as in
          '@{\hspace{1em}}'.

          An empty expression '@{}' will eliminate the space, including
          the space at the start or end, as in the example below where
          the tabular lines need to lie on the left margin.

               \begin{flushleft}
                 \begin{tabular}{@{}l}
                   ..
                 \end{tabular}
               \end{flushleft}

          This example shows text, a decimal point, between the columns,
          arranged so the numbers in the table are aligned on that
          decimal point.

               \begin{tabular}{r@{$.$}l}
                 $3$ &$14$  \\
                 $9$ &$80665$
               \end{tabular}

          An '\extracolsep{WD}' command in an @-expression causes an
          extra space of width WD to appear to the left of all
          subsequent columns, until countermanded by another
          '\extracolsep' command.  Unlike ordinary intercolumn space,
          this extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression.  An
          '\extracolsep' command can be used only in an @-expression in
          the 'cols' argument.  Below, LaTeX inserts the right amount of
          intercolumn space to make the entire table 4 inches wide.

               \begin{center}
                 \begin{tabular*}{4in}{l@{\ \ldots\extracolsep{\fill}}l}
                   Seven times down, eight times up
                   &such is life!
                 \end{tabular*}
               \end{center}

          To insert commands that are automatically executed before a
          given column, load the 'array' package and use the '>{...}'
          specifier.

     'p{WD}'
          Each item in the column is typeset in a parbox of width WD.

          Note that a line break double backslash '\\' may not appear in
          the item, except inside an environment like 'minipage',
          'array', or 'tabular', or inside an explicit '\parbox', or in
          the scope of a '\centering', '\raggedright', or '\raggedleft'
          declaration (when used in a 'p'-column element these
          declarations must appear inside braces, as with '{\centering
          .. \\ ..}').  Otherwise LaTeX will misinterpret the double
          backslash as ending the row.

     '*{NUM}{COLS}'
          Equivalent to NUM copies of COLS, where NUM is a positive
          integer and COLS is a list of specifiers.  Thus
          '\begin{tabular}{|*{3}{l|r}|}' is equivalent to
          '\begin{tabular}{|l|rl|rl|r|}'.  Note that COLS may contain
          another '*-expression'.

   Parameters that control formatting:

'\arrayrulewidth'
     A length that is the thickness of the rule created by '|',
     '\hline', and '\vline' in the 'tabular' and 'array' environments.
     The default is '.4pt'.  Change it as in
     '\setlength{\arrayrulewidth}{0.8pt}'.

'\arraystretch'
     A factor by which the spacing between rows in the 'tabular' and
     'array' environments is multiplied.  The default is '1', for no
     scaling.  Change it as '\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.2}'.

'\doublerulesep'
     A length that is the distance between the vertical rules produced
     by the '||' specifier.  The default is '2pt'.

'\tabcolsep'
     A length that is half of the space between columns.  The default is
     '6pt'.  Change it with '\setlength'.

   The following commands can be used inside the body of a 'tabular'
environment, the first two inside an entry and the second two between
lines:

8.23.1 '\multicolumn'
---------------------

Synopsis:

     \multicolumn{NUMCOLS}{COLS}{TEXT}

   Make an 'array' or 'tabular' entry that spans several columns.  The
first argument NUMCOLS gives the number of columns to span.  The second
argument COLS specifies the formatting of the entry, with 'c' for
centered, 'l' for flush left, or 'r' for flush right.  The third
argument TEXT gives the contents of that entry.

   In this example, in the first row, the second and third columns are
spanned by the single heading 'Name'.

     \begin{tabular}{lccl}
       \textit{ID}       &\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{Name}} &\textit{Age} \\ \hline % row one
       978-0-393-03701-2 &O'Brian &Patrick                  &55           \\        % row two
         ..
     \end{tabular}

   What counts as a column is: the column format specifier for the
'array' or 'tabular' environment is broken into parts, where each part
(except the first) begins with 'l', 'c', 'r', or 'p'.  So from
'\begin{tabular}{|r|ccp{1.5in}|}' the parts are '|r|', 'c', 'c',
and 'p{1.5in}|'.

   The COLS argument overrides the 'array' or 'tabular' environment's
intercolumn area default adjoining this multicolumn entry.  To affect
that area, this argument can contain vertical bars '|' indicating the
placement of vertical rules, and '@{..}' expressions.  Thus if COLS is
'|c|' then this multicolumn entry will be centered and a vertical rule
will come in the intercolumn area before it and after it.  This table
details the exact behavior.

     \begin{tabular}{|cc|c|c|}
       \multicolumn{1}{r}{w}       % entry one
         &\multicolumn{1}{|r|}{x}  % entry two
         &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{y}   % entry three
         &z                        % entry four
     \end{tabular}
   Before the first entry the output will not have a vertical rule
because the '\multicolumn' has the COLS specifier 'r' with no initial
vertical bar.  Between entry one and entry two there will be a vertical
rule; although the first COLS does not have an ending vertical bar, the
second COLS does have a starting one.  Between entry two and entry three
there is a single vertical rule; despite that the COLS in both of the
surrounding 'multicolumn''s call for a vertical rule, you only get one
rule.  Between entry three and entry four there is no vertical rule; the
default calls for one but the COLS in the entry three '\multicolumn'
leaves it out, and that takes precedence.  Finally, following entry four
there is a vertical rule because of the default.

   The number of spanned columns NUMCOLS can be 1.  Besides giving the
ability to change the horizontal alignment, this also is useful to
override for one row the 'tabular' definition's default intercolumn area
specification, including the placement of vertical rules.

   In the example below, in the 'tabular' definition the first column is
specified to default to left justified but in the first row the entry is
centered with '\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}'.  Also in the first
row, the second and third columns are spanned by a single entry with
'\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}}', overriding the specification to
center those two columns on the page range en-dash.

     \begin{tabular}{l|r@{--}l}
       \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}
         &multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}} \\ \hline
       Baroque          &1600           &1760         \\
       Classical        &1730           &1820         \\
       Romantic         &1780           &1910         \\
       Impressionistic  &1875           &1925
     \end{tabular}

   Note that although the 'tabular' specification by default puts a
vertical rule between the first and second columns, because there is no
vertical bar in the COLS of either of the first row's '\multicolumn'
commands, no rule appears in the first row.

8.23.2 '\vline'
---------------

Draw a vertical line in a 'tabular' or 'array' environment extending the
full height and depth of an entry's row.  Can also be used in an
@-expression, although its synonym vertical bar '|' is more common.
This command is rarely used; typically a table's vertical lines are
specified in 'tabular''s COLS argument and overriden as needed with
'\multicolumn'.

   This example illustrates some pitfalls.  In the first line's second
entry the '\hfill' moves the '\vline' to the left edge of the cell.  But
that is different than putting it halfway between the two columns, so in
that row between the first and second columns there are two vertical
rules, with the one from the '{c|cc}' specifier coming before the one
produced by the '\vline\hfill'.  In contrast, the first line's third
entry shows the usual way to put a vertical bar between two columns.  In
the second line, the 'ghi' is the widest entry in its column so in the
'\vline\hfill' the '\hfill' has no effect and the vertical line in that
entry appears immediately next to the 'g', with no whitespace.

     \begin{tabular}{c|cc}
       x   &\vline\hfill y   &\multicolumn{1}{|r}{z} \\
       abc &def &\vline\hfill ghi
     \end{tabular}

8.23.3 '\cline'
---------------

Synopsis:

     \cline{I-J}

   Draw a horizontal rule in an 'array' or 'tabular' environment
beginning in column I and ending in column J.  The dash '-' must appear
in the mandatory argument.  To span a single column use the number
twice.

   This example puts two horizontal lines between the first and second
rows, one line in the first column only, and the other spanning the
third and fourth columns.  The two lines are side-by-side, at the same
height.

     \begin{tabular}{llrr}
       a &b &c &d \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{3-4}
       e &f &g &h
     \end{tabular}

8.23.4 '\hline'
---------------

Draws a horizontal line the width of the enclosing 'tabular' or 'array'
environment.  It's most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom,
and between the rows of a table.

   In this example the top of the table has two horizontal rules, one
above the other, that span both columns.  The bottom of the table has a
single rule spanning both columns.  Because of the '\hline', the
'tabular' second row's line ending double backslash '\\' is required.

     \begin{tabular}{ll} \hline\hline
       Baseball   &Red Sox  \\
       Basketball &Celtics  \\ \hline
     \end{tabular}

8.24 'thebibliography'
======================

Synopsis:

     \begin{thebibliography}{WIDEST-LABEL}
     \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY}
     ...
     \end{thebibliography}

   The 'thebibliography' environment produces a bibliography or
reference list.

   In the 'article' class, this reference list is labelled "References";
in the 'report' class, it is labelled "Bibliography".  You can change
the label (in the standard classes) by redefining the command
'\refname'.  For instance, this eliminates it entirely:

     \renewcommand{\refname}{}

   The mandatory WIDEST-LABEL argument is text that, when typeset, is as
wide as the widest item label produced by the '\bibitem' commands.  It
is typically given as '9' for bibliographies with less than 10
references, '99' for ones with less than 100, etc.

8.24.1 '\bibitem'
-----------------

Synopsis:

     \bibitem[LABEL]{CITE_KEY}

   The '\bibitem' command generates an entry labelled by LABEL.  If the
LABEL argument is missing, a number is automatically generated using the
'enumi' counter.  The CITE_KEY is any sequence of letters, numbers, and
punctuation symbols not containing a comma.

   This command writes an entry to the '.aux' file containing the item's
CITE_KEY and label.  When the '.aux' file is read by the
'\begin{document}' command, the item's 'label' is associated with
'cite_key', causing references to CITE_KEY with a '\cite' command (see
next section) to produce the associated label.

8.24.2 '\cite'
--------------

Synopsis:

     \cite[SUBCITE]{KEYS}

   The KEYS argument is a list of one or more citation keys, separated
by commas.  This command generates an in-text citation to the references
associated with KEYS by entries in the '.aux' file.

   The text of the optional SUBCITE argument appears after the citation.
For example, '\cite[p.~314]{knuth}' might produce '[Knuth, p. 314]'.

8.24.3 '\nocite'
----------------

'\nocite{KEYS}'

   The '\nocite' command produces no text, but writes KEYS, which is a
list of one or more citation keys, to the '.aux' file.

8.24.4 Using BibTeX
-------------------

If you use the BibTeX program by Oren Patashnik (highly recommended if
you need a bibliography of more than a couple of titles) to maintain
your bibliography, you don't use the 'thebibliography' environment
(*note thebibliography::).  Instead, you include the lines

     \bibliographystyle{BIBSTYLE}
     \bibliography{BIBFILE1,BIBFILE2}

   The '\bibliographystyle' command does not produce any output of its
own.  Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will be
produced: BIBSTYLE refers to a file BIBSTYLE'.bst', which defines how
your citations will look.  The standard STYLE names distributed with
BibTeX are:

'alpha'
     Sorted alphabetically.  Labels are formed from name of author and
     year of publication.
'plain'
     Sorted alphabetically.  Labels are numeric.
'unsrt'
     Like 'plain', but entries are in order of citation.
'abbrv'
     Like 'plain', but more compact labels.

   In addition, numerous other BibTeX style files exist tailored to the
demands of various publications.  See
<http://mirror.ctan.org/biblio/bibtex/contrib>.

   The '\bibliography' command is what actually produces the
bibliography.  The argument to '\bibliography' refers to files named
'BIBFILE.bib', which should contain your database in BibTeX format.
Only the entries referred to via '\cite' and '\nocite' will be listed in
the bibliography.

8.25 'theorem'
==============

Synopsis:

     \begin{theorem}
     THEOREM-TEXT
     \end{theorem}

   The 'theorem' environment produces "Theorem N" in boldface followed
by THEOREM-TEXT, where the numbering possibilities for N are described
under '\newtheorem' (*note \newtheorem::).

8.26 'titlepage'
================

Synopsis:

     \begin{titlepage}
     TEXT
     \end{titlepage}

   The 'titlepage' environment creates a title page, i.e., a page with
no printed page number or heading.  It also causes the following page to
be numbered page one.  Formatting the title page is left to you.  The
'\today' command may be useful on title pages (*note \today::).

   You can use the '\maketitle' command (*note \maketitle::) to produce
a standard title page without a 'titlepage' environment.

8.27 'verbatim'
===============

Synopsis:

     \begin{verbatim}
     LITERAL-TEXT
     \end{verbatim}

   The 'verbatim' environment is a paragraph-making environment in which
LaTeX produces exactly what you type in; for instance the '\' character
produces a printed '\'.  It turns LaTeX into a typewriter with carriage
returns and blanks having the same effect that they would on a
typewriter.

   The 'verbatim' uses a monospaced typewriter-like font ('\tt').

8.27.1 '\verb'
--------------

Synopsis:

     \verbCHARLITERAL-TEXTCHAR
     \verb*CHARLITERAL-TEXTCHAR

   The '\verb' command typesets LITERAL-TEXT as it is input, including
special characters and spaces, using the typewriter ('\tt') font.  No
spaces are allowed between '\verb' or '\verb*' and the delimiter CHAR,
which begins and ends the verbatim text.  The delimiter must not appear
in LITERAL-TEXT.

   The '*'-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a "visible
space" character.

8.28 'verse'
============

Synopsis:

     \begin{verse}
     LINE1 \\
     LINE2 \\
     ...
     \end{verse}

   The 'verse' environment is designed for poetry, though you may find
other uses for it.

   The margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are
not indented, and the text is not justified.  Separate the lines of each
stanza with '\\', and use one or more blank lines to separate the
stanzas.

9 Line breaking
***************

The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to translate
your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces.  To produce a
printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines (and these
lines must be broken into pages).

   LaTeX usually does the line (and page) breaking in the text body for
you but in some environments you manually force line breaks.

9.1 '\\'
========

Synopsis:

     \\[MORESPACE]

   or

     \\*[MORESPACE]

   Start a new line.  The optional argument MORESPACE specifies extra
vertical space to be insert before the next line.  This can be a
negative length.  The text before the break is set at its normal length,
that is, it is not stretched to fill out the line width.

   Explicit line breaks in the text body are unusual in LaTeX.  In
particular, to start a new paragraph instead leave a blank line.  This
command is mostly used outside of the main flow of text such as in a
'tabular' or 'array' environment.

   Under ordinary circumstances (e.g., outside of a 'p{..}' column in a
'tabular' environment) the '\newline' command is a synonym for '\\'
(*note \newline::).

   In addition to starting a new line, the starred form '\\*' tells
LaTeX not to start a new page between the two lines, by issuing a
'\nobreak'.

     \title{My story: \\[0.25in]
            a tale of woe}

9.2 '\obeycr' & '\restorecr'
============================

The '\obeycr' command makes a return in the input file ('^^M',
internally) the same as '\\' (followed by '\relax').  So each new line
in the input will also be a new line in the output.

   '\restorecr' restores normal line-breaking behavior.

9.3 '\newline'
==============

In ordinary text this is equivalent to double-backslash (*note \\::); it
breaks a line, with no stretching of the text before it.

   Inside a 'tabular' or 'array' environment, in a column with a
specifier producing a paragraph box, like typically 'p{..}', '\newline'
will insert a line break inside of the column, that is, it does not
break the entire row.  To break the entire row use '\\' or its
equivalent '\tabularnewline'.

   This will print 'Name:' and 'Address:' as two lines in a single cell
of the table.

     \begin{tabular}{p{1in}{\hspace{2in}}p{1in}}
       Name: \newline Address: &Date: \\ \hline
     \end{tabular}

   The 'Date:' will be baseline-aligned with 'Name:'.

9.4 '\-' (discretionary hyphen)
===============================

The '\-' command tells LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that
point.  LaTeX is pretty good at hyphenating, and usually finds most of
the correct hyphenation points, while almost never using an incorrect
one.  The '\-' command is used for the exceptional cases.

   When you insert '\-' commands in a word, the word will only be
hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points that
LaTeX might otherwise have chosen.

9.5 '\fussy'
============

The declaration '\fussy' (which is the default) makes TeX picky about
line breaking.  This usually avoids too much space between words, at the
cost of an occasional overfull box.

   This command cancels the effect of a previous '\sloppy' command
(*note \sloppy::.

9.6 '\sloppy'
=============

The declaration '\sloppy' makes TeX less fussy about line breaking.
This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose interword spacing.

   Lasts until a '\fussy' command is issued (*note \fussy::).

9.7 '\hyphenation'
==================

Synopsis:

     \hyphenation{WORD-ONE WORD-TWO}

   The '\hyphenation' command declares allowed hyphenation points with a
'-' character in the given words.  The words are separated by spaces.
TeX will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no inflections are
tried.  Multiple '\hyphenation' commands accumulate.  Some examples (the
default TeX hyphenation patterns misses the hyphenations in these
words):

     \hyphenation{ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases}

9.8 '\linebreak' & '\nolinebreak'
=================================

Synopses:

     \linebreak[PRIORITY]
     \nolinebreak[PRIORITY]

   By default, the '\linebreak' ('\nolinebreak') command forces
(prevents) a line break at the current position.  For '\linebreak', the
spaces in the line are stretched out so that it extends to the right
margin as usual.

   With the optional argument PRIORITY, you can convert the command from
a demand to a request.  The PRIORITY must be a number from 0 to 4.  The
higher the number, the more insistent the request.

10 Page breaking
****************

LaTeX starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has
accumulated to fill up a page.  Usually this happens automatically, but
sometimes you may want to influence the breaks.

10.1 '\cleardoublepage'
=======================

The '\cleardoublepage' command ends the current page and causes all the
pending floating figures and tables that have so far appeared in the
input to be printed.  In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the
next page a right-hand (odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if
necessary.

10.2 '\clearpage'
=================

The '\clearpage' command ends the current page and causes all the
pending floating figures and tables that have so far appeared in the
input to be printed.

10.3 '\newpage'
===============

The '\newpage' command ends the current page, but does not clear floats
(*note \clearpage::).

10.4 '\enlargethispage'
=======================

'\enlargethispage{size}'

   '\enlargethispage*{size}'

   Enlarge the '\textheight' for the current page by the specified
amount; e.g., '\enlargethispage{\baselineskip}' will allow one
additional line.

   The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page
as much as possible.  This is normally used together with an explicit
'\pagebreak'.

10.5 '\pagebreak' & '\nopagebreak'
==================================

Synopses:

     \pagebreak[PRIORITY]
     \nopagebreak[PRIORITY]

   By default, the '\pagebreak' ('\nopagebreak') command forces
(prevents) a page break at the current position.  With '\pagebreak', the
vertical space on the page is stretched out where possible so that it
extends to the normal bottom margin.

   With the optional argument PRIORITY, you can convert the '\pagebreak'
command from a demand to a request.  The number must be a number from 0
to 4.  The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.

11 Footnotes
************

Place a numbered footnote at the bottom of the current page, as here.

     Noe"l Coward quipped that having to read a footnote is like having
     to go downstairs to answer the door, while in the midst of making
     love.\footnote{I wouldn't know, I don't read footnotes.}

   You can place multiple footnotes on a page.  If the text becomes too
long it will flow to the next page.

   You can also produce footnotes by combining the '\footnotemark' and
the '\footnotetext' commands, which is useful in special circumstances.

   To make bibliographic references come out as footnotes you need to
include a bibliographic style with that behavior.

11.1 '\footnote'
================

Synopsis:

     \footnote[NUMBER]{TEXT}

   Place a numbered footnote TEXT at the bottom of the current page.

     There are over a thousand footnotes in Gibbon's
     \textit{Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire}.\footnote{After
     reading an early version with endnotes David Hume complained,
     ``One is also plagued with his Notes, according to the present Method
     of printing the Book'' and suggested that they ``only to be printed
     at the Margin or the Bottom of the Page.''}

   The optional argument NUMBER allows you to specify the footnote
number.  If you use this option then the footnote number counter is not
incremented, and if you do not use it then the counter is incremented.

   Change how LaTeX shows the footnote counter with something like
'\renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}', which uses a
sequence of symbols (*note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman
\fnsymbol::).  To make this change global put that in the preamble.  If
you make the change local then you may want to reset the counter with
'\setcounter{footnote}{0}'.  By default LaTeX uses arabic numbers.

   LaTeX's default puts many restrictions on where you can use a
'\footnote'; for instance, you cannot use it in an argument to a
sectioning command such as '\chapter' (it can only be used in outer
paragraph mode).  There are some workarounds; see following sections.

   In a 'minipage' environment the '\footnote' command uses the
'mpfootnote' counter instead of the 'footnote' counter, so they are
numbered independently.  They are shown at the bottom of the
environment, not at the bottom of the page.  And by default they are
shown alphabetically.  *Note minipage::.

11.2 '\footnotemark'
====================

Synopsis, one of:

     \footnotemark
     \footnotemark[NUMBER]

   Put the current footnote number in the text.  (See *note
\footnotetext:: for giving the text of the footnote separately.)  The
version with the optional argument NUMBER uses that number to determine
the mark printed.  This command can be used in inner paragraph mode.

   This example gives the same institutional affiliation to both the
first and third authors ('\thanks' is a version of 'footnote').

     \title{A Treatise on the Binomial Theorem}
     \author{J Moriarty\thanks{University of Leeds}
       \and A C Doyle\thanks{Durham University}
       \and S Holmes\footnotemark[1]}
     \begin{document}
     \maketitle

   If you use '\footnotemark' without the optional argument then it
increments the footnote counter but if you use the optional NUMBER then
it does not.  This produces several consecutive footnote markers
referring to the same footnote.

     The first theorem\footnote{Due to Gauss.}
     and the second theorem\footnotemark[\value{footnote}]
     and the third theorem.\footnotemark[\value{footnote}]

11.3 '\footnotetext'
====================

Synopsis, one of:

     \footnotetext{TEXT}
     \footnotetext[NUMBER]{TEXT}

   Place TEXT at the bottom of the page as a footnote.  This command can
come anywhere after the '\footnotemark' command.  The optional argument
NUMBER changes the displayed footnote number.  The '\footnotetext'
command must appear in outer paragraph mode.

11.4 Footnotes in a table
=========================

Inside a 'table' environment the '\footnote' command does not work.  For
instance, if the code below appears on its own then the footnote simply
disappears; there is a footnote mark in the table cell but nothing is
set at the bottom of the page.

     \begin{center}
          \begin{tabular}{l|l}
          \textsc{Ship}  &\textsc{Book} \\ \hline
          \textit{HMS Sophie}     &Master and Commander  \\
          \textit{HMS Polychrest} &Post Captain  \\
          \textit{HMS Lively}     &Post Captain \\
          \textit{HMS Surprise}   &A number of books\footnote{Starting with HMS Surprise.}
          \end{tabular}
     \end{center}

   The solution is to surround the 'tabular' environment with a
'minipage' environment, as here (*note minipage::).

     \begin{center}
       \begin{minipage}{.5\textwidth}
         .. tabular material ..
       \end{minipage}
     \end{center}

   The same technique will work inside a floating 'table' environment
(*note table::).  To get the footnote at the bottom of the page use the
'tablefootnote' package, as illustrated in this example.  If you put
'\usepackage{tablefootnote}' in the preamble and use the code shown then
the footnote appears at the bottom and is numbered in sequence with
other footnotes.

     \begin{table}
       \centering
          \begin{tabular}{l|l}
          \textsc{Date}  &\textsc{Campaign} \\ \hline
          1862           &Fort Donelson \\
          1863           &Vicksburg     \\
          1865           &Army of Northern Virginia\footnote{Ending the war.}
          \end{tabular}
         \caption{Forces captured by US Grant}
     \end{table}

11.5 Footnotes in section headings
==================================

Putting a footnote in a section heading

     \section{Full sets\protect\footnote{This material is due to R~Jones.}}

   causes the footnote to appear both at the bottom of the page where
the section starts and at the bottom of the table of contents page.  To
have it not appear on the table of contents use the package 'footmisc'
with the 'stable' option.

     \usepackage[stable]{footmisc}
      ..
     \begin{document}
      ..
     \section{Full sets\footnote{This material is due to R~Jones.}}

   Note that the '\protect' is gone; putting it in causes the footnote
to reappear on the table of contents.

11.6 Footnotes of footnotes
===========================

Particularly in the humanities, authors can have multiple classes of
footnotes, including having footnotes of footnotes.  The package
'bigfoot' extends LaTeX's default footnote mechanism in many ways,
including allow these two, as in this example.

     \usepackage{bigfoot}
     \DeclareNewFootnote{Default}
     \DeclareNewFootnote{from}[alph]   % create class \footnotefrom{}
       ..
     \begin{document}
       ..
     The third theorem is a partial converse of the
     second.\footnotefrom{First noted in Wilson.\footnote{Second edition only.}}
      ..

11.7 Multiple references to footnotes
=====================================

You can refer to a single footnote more than once.  This example uses
the package 'cleverref'.

     \usepackage{cleveref}[2012/02/15]   % this version of package or later
     \crefformat{footnote}{#2\footnotemark[#1]#3}
       ..
     \begin{document}
       ..
     The theorem is from Evers.\footnote{\label{fn:TE}Tinker and Evers, 1994.}
     The corollary is from Chance.\footnote{Evers and Chance, 1990.}
     But the key lemma is from Tinker.\cref{fn:TE}
       ..

   This solution will work with the package 'hyperref'.  See *note
\footnotemark:: for a simpler solution in the common case of multiple
authors with the same affiliation.

11.8 Footnote parameters
========================

'\footnoterule'
     Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the
     page's footnotes.  Default dimensions: '0.4pt' thick (or wide), and
     '0.4\columnwidth' long in the standard document classes (except
     'slides', where it does not appear).

'\footnotesep'
     The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote.
     By default, this is set to the normal strut for '\footnotesize'
     fonts (*note Font sizes::), therefore there is no extra space
     between footnotes.  This is '6.65pt' for '10pt', '7.7pt' for
     '11pt', and '8.4pt' for '12pt'.

12 Definitions
**************

LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds.

12.1 '\newcommand' & '\renewcommand'
====================================

'\newcommand' and '\renewcommand' define and redefine a command,
respectively.  Synopses:

       \newcommand{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN}
       \newcommand*{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN}
     \renewcommand{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN}
     \renewcommand*{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN}

   The '*'-form of these two commands requires that the arguments not
contain multiple paragraphs of text (not '\long', in plain TeX terms).

CMD
     Required; the command name.  It must begin with '\'.  For
     '\newcommand', it must not be already defined and must not begin
     with '\end'.  For '\renewcommand', it must already be defined.

NARGS
     Optional; an integer from 0 to 9, specifying the number of
     arguments that the command will take.  If this argument is not
     present, the default is for the command to have no arguments.  When
     redefining a command, the new version can have a different number
     of arguments than the old version.

OPTARGDEFAULT
     Optional; if this argument is present then the first argument of
     defined command \CMD is optional, with default value OPTARGDEFAULT
     (which may be the empty string).  If this argument is not present
     then \CMD does not take an optional argument.

     That is, if \CMD is used with square brackets following, as in
     '\CMD[MYVAL]', then within DEFN '#1' expands MYVAL.  While if \CMD
     is called without square brackets following, then within DEFN the
     '#1' expands to the default OPTARGDEFAULT.  In either case, any
     required arguments will be referred to starting with '#2'.

     Omitting '[MYVAL]' in the call is different from having the square
     brackets with no contents, as in '[]'.  The former results in '#1'
     expanding to OPTARGDEFAULT; the latter results in '#1' expanding to
     the empty string.

DEFN
     The text to be substituted for every occurrence of 'cmd'; a
     construct of the form '#N' in DEFN is replaced by the text of the
     Nth argument.

   A command with no arguments that is followed in the source by a space
will swallow that space.  The solution is to type '{}' after the command
and before the space.

   A simple example of defining a new command: '\newcommand{\JH}{Jim
Hef{}feron}' causes the abbreviation '\JH' to be replaced by the longer
text.

   Redefining a command is basically the same:
'\renewcommand{\qedsymbol}{{\small QED}}'.

   Here's a command definition that uses arguments:

     \newcommand{\defreference}[1]{Definition~\ref{#1}}

Then, '\defreference{def:basis}' will expand to something like
'Definition~3.14'.

   An example with two arguments:
'\newcommand{\nbym}[2]{#1\!\times\!#2}' is invoked as '\nbym{2}{k}'.

   An example with optional arguments:

     \newcommand{\salutation}[1][Sir or Madam]{Dear #1:}

Then, '\salutation' gives 'Dear Sir or Madam:' while '\salutation[John]'
gives 'Dear John:'.  And '\salutation[]' gives 'Dear :'.

   The braces around DEFN do not delimit the scope of the result of
expanding DEFN.  So '\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{\it #1}' is wrong since
in the sentence

     The \shipname{Monitor} met the \shipname{Virginia}.

the words 'met the' will incorrectly be in italics.  An extra pair of
braces '\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{{\it #1}}' fixes it.

12.2 '\providecommand'
======================

Defines a command, as long as no command of this name already exists.
Synopses:

     \providecommand{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN}
     \providecommand*{CMD}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{DEFN}

   If no command of this name already exists then this has the same
effect as '\newcommand' (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::).  If a
command of this name already exists then this definition does nothing.
This is particularly useful in a style file, or other file that may be
loaded more than once.

12.3 '\newcounter': Allocating a counter
========================================

Synopsis:

     \newcounter{COUNTERNAME}[SUPERCOUNTER]

   The '\newcounter' command globally defines a new counter named
COUNTERNAME.  The name consists of letters only and does not begin with
a backslash ('\').  The name must not already be used by another
counter.  The new counter is initialized to zero.

   If the optional argument '[SUPERCOUNTER]' appears, then COUNTERNAME
will be numbered within, or subsidiary to, the existing counter
SUPERCOUNTER.  For example, ordinarily 'subsection' is numbered within
'section'.  Any time SUPERCOUNTER is incremented with '\stepcounter'
(*note \stepcounter::) or '\refstepcounter' (*note \refstepcounter::)
then COUNTERNAME is reset to zero.

   *Note Counters::, for more information about counters.

12.4 '\newlength': Allocating a length
======================================

Allocate a new "length" register.  Synopsis:

     \newlength{\ARG}

   This command takes one required argument, which must begin with a
backslash ('\').  It creates a new length register named '\ARG', which
is a place to hold (rubber) lengths such as '1in plus.2in minus.1in'
(what plain TeX calls a 'skip' register).  The register gets an initial
value of zero.  The control sequence '\ARG' must not already be defined.

   *Note Lengths::, for more about lengths.

12.5 '\newsavebox': Allocating a box
====================================

Allocate a "bin" for holding a box.  Synopsis:

     \newsavebox{\CMD}

   Defines '\CMD' to refer to a new bin for storing boxes.  Such a box
is for holding typeset material, to use multiple times (*note Boxes::)
or to measure or manipulate.  The name '\CMD' must start with a
backslash ('\'), and must not be already defined.

   The allocation of a box is global.  This command is fragile (*note
\protect::).

12.6 '\newenvironment' & '\renewenvironment'
============================================

These commands define or redefine an environment ENV, that is,
'\begin{ENV} ... \end{ENV}'.  Synopses:

       \newenvironment{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEFN}{ENDDEFN}
       \newenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEFN}{ENDDEFN}
     \renewenvironment{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEFN}{ENDDEFN}
     \renewenvironment*{ENV}[NARGS][OPTARGDEFAULT]{BEGDEFN}{ENDDEFN}

   Unlike '\newcommand' and '\renewcommand', the '*'-forms
'\newenvironment*' and '\renewcommand*' have the same effect as the
forms with no '*'.

ENV
     Required; the environment name.  It does not begin with backslash
     ('\').  It must not begin with the string 'end'.  For
     '\newenvironment', the name ENV must not be the name of an already
     existing environment, and also the command '\ENV' must be
     undefined.  For '\renewenvironment', ENV must be the name of an
     existing environment.

NARGS
     Optional; an integer from 0 to 9 denoting the number of arguments
     of that the environment will take.  These arguments appear after
     the '\begin', as in '\begin{ENV}{ARG1}...{ARGN}'.  If this argument
     is not present then the default is for the environment to have no
     arguments.  When redefining an environment, the new version can
     have a different number of arguments than the old version.

OPTARGDEFAULT
     Optional; if this argument is present then the first argument of
     the defined environment is optional, with default value
     OPTARGDEFAULT (which may be the empty string).  If this argument is
     not present then the environment does not take an optional
     argument.

     That is, when '[OPTARGDEFAULT]' is present in the environment
     definition, if '\begin{ENV}' is used with square brackets
     following, as in '\begin{ENV}[MYVAL]', then within the environment
     '#1' expands MYVAL.  If '\begin{ENV}' is called without square
     brackets following, then within the environment the '#1' expands to
     the default OPTARGDEFAULT.  In either case, any required arguments
     will be referred to starting with '#2'.

     Omitting '[MYVAL]' in the call is different from having the square
     brackets with no contents, as in '[]'.  The former results in '#1'
     expanding to OPTARGDEFAULT; the latter results in '#1' expanding to
     the empty string.

BEGDEFN
     Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of '\begin{ENV}'; a
     construct of the form '#N' in BEGDEF is replaced by the text of the
     Nth argument.

ENDDEFN
     Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of '\end{ENV}'.
     Note that it may not contain any argument parameters, so '#N'
     cannot be used here.

   The environment ENV delimits the scope of the result of expanding
BEGDEFN and ENDDEFN.  Thus, in the first example below, the effect of
the '\small' is limited to the quote and does not extend to material
following the environment.

   This example gives an environment like LaTeX's 'quotation' except
that it will be set in smaller type.

     \newenvironment{smallquote}{%
       \small\begin{quotation}
     }{%
       \end{quotation}
     }

   This shows the use of arguments; it gives a quotation environment
that cites the author.

     \newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{%
       \begin{quotation}
       \noindent\textit{#1}:
     }{%
       \end{quotation}
     }

The author's name is optional, and defaults to Shakespeare.  In the
document, use the environment as here:

     \begin{citequote}[Lincoln]
       ..
     \end{citequote}

   The final example shows how to save the value of an argument to use
in ENDDEFN.

     \newsavebox{\quoteauthor}
     \newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{%
       \sbox\quoteauthor{#1}%
       \begin{quotation}
     }{%
       \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---\usebox{\quoteauthor}
       \end{quotation}
     }

12.7 '\newtheorem'
==================

Define a new "theorem-like environment".  Synopses:

     \newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}[NUMBERED_WITHIN]
     \newtheorem{NAME}[NUMBERED_LIKE]{TITLE}

   Both create a theorem-like environment NAME.  Using the first form,

     \newtheorem{NAME}{TITLE}[NUMBERED_WITHIN]

with the optional argument after the second required argument, creates
an environment whose counter is subordinate to the existing counter
NUMBERED_WITHIN: it will be reset when NUMBERED_WITHIN is reset).

   Using the second form,

     \newtheorem{NAME}[NUMBERED_LIKE]{TITLE}

with the optional argument between the two required arguments, will
create an environment whose counter will share the previously defined
counter NUMBERED_LIKE.

   You can specify one of NUMBERED_WITHIN and NUMBERED_LIKE, or neither,
but not both.

   This command creates a counter named NAME.  In addition, unless the
optional argument NUMBERED_LIKE is used, the current '\ref' value will
be that of '\theNUMBERED_WITHIN' (*note \ref::).

   This declaration is global.  It is fragile (*note \protect::).

   Arguments:

NAME
     The name of the environment.  It must not begin with a backslash
     ('\').  It must not be the name of an existing environment; indeed,
     the command name '\NAME' must not already be defined as anything.

TITLE
     The text printed at the beginning of the environment, before the
     number.  For example, 'Theorem'.

NUMBERED_WITHIN
     Optional; the name of an already defined counter, usually a
     sectional unit such as 'chapter' or 'section'.  When the
     NUMBERED_WITHIN counter is reset then the NAME environment's
     counter will also be reset.

     If this optional argument is not used then the command '\theNAME'
     is set to '\arabic{NAME}'.

NUMBERED_LIKE
     Optional; the name of an already defined theorem-like environment.
     The new environment will be numbered in sequence with
     NUMBERED_LIKE.

   Without any optional arguments the environments are numbered
sequentially.  This example has a declaration in the preamble that
results in 'Definition 1' and 'Definition 2' in the output.

     \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}
     \begin{document}
     \section{...}
     \begin{defn}
       First def
     \end{defn}

     \section{...}
     \begin{defn}
       Second def
     \end{defn}

   Because this example specifies the optional argument NUMBERED_WITHIN
to '\newtheorem' as 'section', the example, with the same document body,
gives 'Definition 1.1' and 'Definition 2.1'.

     \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section]
     \begin{document}
     \section{...}
     \begin{defn}
       First def
     \end{defn}

     \section{...}
     \begin{defn}
       Second def
     \end{defn}

   In this example there are two declarations in the preamble, the
second of which calls for the new 'thm' environment to use the same
counter as 'defn'.  It gives 'Definition 1.1', followed by 'Theorem 2.1'
and 'Definition 2.2'.

     \newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section]
     \newtheorem{thm}[defn]{Theorem}
     \begin{document}
     \section{...}
     \begin{defn}
       First def
     \end{defn}

     \section{...}
     \begin{thm}
       First thm
     \end{thm}

     \begin{defn}
       Second def
     \end{defn}

12.8 '\newfont': Define a new font (obsolete)
=============================================

'\newfont', now obsolete, defines a command that will switch fonts.
Synopsis:

     \newfont{\CMD}{FONT DESCRIPTION}

   This defines a control sequence '\CMD' that will change the current
font.  LaTeX will look on your system for a file named 'FONTNAME.tfm'.
The control sequence must must not already be defined.  It must begin
with a backslash ('\').

   This command is obsolete.  It is a low-level command for setting up
an individual font.  Today fonts are almost always defined in families
(which allows you to, for example, associate a boldface with a roman)
through the so-called "New Font Selection Scheme", either by using '.fd'
files or through the use of an engine that can access system fonts such
as XeLaTeX (*note TeX engines::).

   But since it is part of LaTeX, here is an explanation: the FONT
DESCRIPTION consists of a FONTNAME and an optional "at clause"; this can
have the form either 'at DIMEN' or 'scaled FACTOR', where a FACTOR of
'1000' means no scaling.  For LaTeX's purposes, all this does is scale
all the character and other font dimensions relative to the font's
design size, which is a value defined in the '.tfm' file.

   This example defines two equivalent fonts and typesets a few
characters in each:

     \newfont{\testfontat}{cmb10 at 11pt}
     \newfont{\testfontscaled}{cmb10 scaled 11pt}
     \testfontat abc
     \testfontscaled abc

12.9 '\protect'
===============

All LaTeX commands are either "fragile" or "robust".  Footnotes, line
breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and many more, are
fragile.  A fragile command can break when it is used in the argument to
certain commands.  To prevent such commands from breaking they must be
preceded by the command '\protect'.

   For example, when LaTeX runs the '\section{SECTION NAME}' command it
writes the SECTION NAME text to the '.aux' auxiliary file, moving it
there for use elsewhere in the document such as in the table of
contents.  Any argument that is internally expanded by LaTeX without
typesetting it directly is referred to as a "moving argument".  A
command is fragile if it can expand during this process into invalid TeX
code.  Some examples of moving arguments are those that appear in the
'\caption{..}' command (*note figure::), in the '\thanks{..}' command
(*note \maketitle::), and in @-expressions in the 'tabular' and 'array'
environments (*note tabular::).

   If you get strange errors from commands used in moving arguments, try
preceding it with '\protect'.  Every fragile commands must be protected
with their own '\protect'.

   Although usually a '\protect' command doesn't hurt, length commands
are robust and should not be preceded by a '\protect' command.  Nor can
a '\protect' command be used in the argument to '\addtocounter' or
'\setcounter' command.

   In this example the 'caption' command gives a mysterious error about
an extra curly brace.  Fix the problem by preceding each '\raisebox'
command with '\protect'.

     \begin{figure}
       ..
       \caption{Company headquarters of A\raisebox{1pt}{B}\raisebox{-1pt}{C}}
     \end{figure}

   In the next example the '\tableofcontents' command gives an error
because the '\(..\)' in the section title expands to illegal TeX in the
'.toc' file.  You can solve this by changing '\(..\)' to
'\protect\(..\protect\)'.

     \begin{document}
     \tableofcontents
      ..
     \section{Einstein's \( e=mc^2 \)}
      ..

13 Counters
***********

Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with it.  The
name of the counter is often the same as the name of the environment or
command associated with the number, except with no backslash ('\').
Thus the '\chapter' command starts a chapter and the 'chapter' counter
keeps track of the chapter number.  Below is a list of the counters used
in LaTeX's standard document classes to control numbering.

     part            paragraph       figure          enumi
     chapter         subparagraph    table           enumii
     section         page            footnote        enumiii
     subsection      equation        mpfootnote      enumiv
     subsubsection

   The 'mpfootnote' counter is used by the '\footnote' command inside of
a minipage (*note minipage::).

   The 'enumi' through 'enumiv' counters are used in the 'enumerate'
environment, for up to four nested levels (*note enumerate::).

   New counters are created with '\newcounter'.  *Note \newcounter::.

13.1 '\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol': Printing counters
=====================================================================

All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for
instance, '\alph{enumi}'.  Note that the counter name does not start
with a backslash.

'\alph'
     prints COUNTER using lowercase letters: 'a', 'b', ...

'\Alph'
     uses uppercase letters: 'A', 'B', ...

'\arabic'
     uses Arabic numbers: '1', '2', ...

'\roman'
     uses lowercase roman numerals: 'i', 'ii', ...

'\Roman'
     uses uppercase roman numerals: 'I', 'II', ...

'\fnsymbol'
     prints the value of COUNTER in a specific sequence of nine symbols
     (conventionally used for labeling footnotes).  The value of COUNTER
     must be between 1 and 9, inclusive.

     Here are the symbols (as Unicode code points in ASCII output):

          asterisk(*) dagger(U+2021) ddagger(U+2021)
          section-sign(U+00A7) paragraph-sign(U+00B6) parallel(U+2225)
          double-asterisk(**) double-dagger(U+2020U+2020) double-ddagger(U+2021U+2021)

13.2 '\usecounter{COUNTER}'
===========================

Synopsis:

     \usecounter{COUNTER}

   In the 'list' environment, when used in the second argument, this
command sets up COUNTER to number the list items.  It initializes
COUNTER to zero, and arranges that when '\item' is called without its
optional argument then COUNTER is incremented by '\refstepcounter',
making its value be the current 'ref' value.  This command is fragile
(*note \protect::).

   Put in the preamble, this makes a new list environment enumerated
with TESTCOUNTER:

     \newcounter{testcounter}
     \newenvironment{test}{%
       \begin{list}{}{%
         \usecounter{testcounter}
       }
     }{%
       \end{list}
     }

13.3 '\value{COUNTER}'
======================

Synopsis:

     \value{COUNTER}

   This command expands to the value of COUNTER.  It is often used in
'\setcounter' or '\addtocounter', but '\value' can be used anywhere that
LaTeX expects a number.  It must not be preceded by '\protect' (*note
\protect::).

   The '\value' command is not used for typesetting the value of the
counter.  *Note \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol::.

   This example outputs 'Test counter is 6. Other counter is 5.'.

     \newcounter{test} \setcounter{test}{5}
     \newcounter{other} \setcounter{other}{\value{test}}
     \addtocounter{test}{1}

     Test counter is \arabic{test}.
     Other counter is \arabic{other}.

   This example inserts '\hspace{4\parindent}'.

     \setcounter{myctr}{3} \addtocounter{myctr}{1}
     \hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent}

13.4 '\setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}'
==================================

Synopsis:

     \setcounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}

   The '\setcounter' command globally sets the value of COUNTER to the
VALUE argument.  Note that the counter name does not start with a
backslash.

13.5 '\addtocounter{COUNTER}{VALUE}'
====================================

The '\addtocounter' command globally increments COUNTER by the amount
specified by the VALUE argument, which may be negative.

13.6 '\refstepcounter{COUNTER}'
===============================

The '\refstepcounter' command works in the same way as '\stepcounter'
(*note \stepcounter::): it globally increments the value of COUNTER by
one and resets the value of any counter numbered within it.  (For the
definition of "counters numbered within", *note \newcounter::.)

   In addition, this command also defines the current '\ref' value to be
the result of '\thecounter'.

   While the counter value is set globally, the '\ref' value is set
locally, i.e., inside the current group.

13.7 '\stepcounter{COUNTER}'
============================

The '\stepcounter' command globally adds one to COUNTER and resets all
counters numbered within it.  (For the definition of "counters numbered
within", *note \newcounter::.)

13.8 '\day \month \year': Predefined counters
=============================================

LaTeX defines counters for the day of the month ('\day', 1-31), month of
the year ('\month', 1-12), and year ('\year', Common Era).  When TeX
starts up, they are set to the current values on the system where TeX is
running.  They are not updated as the job progresses.

   The related command '\today' produces a string representing the
current day (*note \today::).

14 Lengths
**********

A "length" is a measure of distance.  Many LaTeX commands take a length
as an argument.

   Lengths come in two types.  A "rigid length" (what Plain TeX calls a
"dimen") such as '10pt' cannot contain a 'plus' or 'minus' component.  A
"rubber length" (what Plain TeX calls a "skip") can contain those, as
with '1cm plus0.05cm minus0.01cm'.  These give the ability to stretch or
shrink; the length in the prior sentence could appear in the output as
long as 1.05 cm or as short as 0.99 cm, depending on what TeX's
typesetting algorithm finds optimum.

   The 'plus' or 'minus' component of a rubber length can contain a
"fill" component, as in '1in plus2fill'.  This gives the length infinite
stretchability or shrinkability, so that the length in the prior
sentence can be set by TeX to any distance greater than or equal to
1 inch.  TeX actually provides three infinite glue components 'fil',
'fill', and 'filll', such that the later ones overcome the earlier ones,
but only the middle value is ordinarily used.  *Note \hfill::, *Note
\vfill::.

   Multiplying an entire rubber length by a number turns it into a rigid
length, so that after '\setlength{\ylength}{1in plus 0.2in}' and
'\setlength{\zlength}{3\ylength}' then the value of '\zlength' is '3in'.

14.1 Units of length
====================

TeX and LaTeX know about these units both inside and outside of math
mode.

'pt'
     Point 1/72.27 inch.  The conversion to metric units, to two decimal
     places, is 1point = 2.85mm = 28.45cm.

'pc'
     Pica, 12 pt

'in'
     Inch, 72.27 pt

'bp'
     Big point, 1/72 inch.  This length is the definition of a point in
     PostScript and many desktop publishing systems.

'cm'
     Centimeter

'mm'
     Millimeter

'dd'
     Didot point, 1.07 pt

'cc'
     Cicero, 12 dd

'sp'
     Scaled point, 1/65536 pt

   Two other lengths that are often used are values set by the designer
of the font.  The x-height of the current font "ex", traditionally the
height of the lower case letter x, is often used for vertical lengths.
Similarly "em", traditionally the width of the capital letter M, is
often used for horizontal lengths (there is also '\enspace', which is
'0.5em').  Use of these can help make a definition work better across
font changes.  For example, a definition of the vertical space between
list items given as '\setlength{\itemsep}{1ex plus 0.05ex minus 0.01ex}'
is more likely to still be reasonable if the font is changed than a
definition given in points.

   In math mode, many definitions are expressed in terms of the math
unit "mu" given by 1 em = 18 mu, where the em is taken from the current
math symbols family.  *Note Spacing in math mode::.

14.2 '\setlength{\LEN}{VALUE}'
==============================

The '\setlength' sets the value of \LEN to the VALUE argument, which can
be expressed in any units that LaTeX understands, i.e., inches ('in'),
millimeters ('mm'), points ('pt'), big points ('bp', etc.

14.3 '\addtolength{\LEN}{AMOUNT}'
=================================

The '\addtolength' command increments a "length command" \LEN by the
amount specified in the AMOUNT argument, which may be negative.

14.4 '\settodepth'
==================

'\settodepth{\gnat}{text}'

   The '\settodepth' command sets the value of a 'length' command equal
to the depth of the 'text' argument.

14.5 '\settoheight'
===================

'\settoheight{\gnat}{text}'

   The '\settoheight' command sets the value of a 'length' command equal
to the height of the 'text' argument.

14.6 '\settowidth{\LEN}{TEXT}'
==============================

The '\settowidth' command sets the value of the command \LEN to the
width of the TEXT argument.

14.7 Predefined lengths
=======================

'\width'

   '\height'

   '\depth'

   '\totalheight'

   These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the
box-making commands (*note Boxes::).  They specify the natural width,
etc., of the text in the box.  '\totalheight' equals '\height' +
'\depth'.  To make a box with the text stretched to double the natural
size, e.g., say

   '\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}'

15 Making paragraphs
********************

A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines--lines not
containing even a '%'.  A blank line should not appear where a new
paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of
a sectioning command.

15.1 '\indent'
==============

'\indent' produces a horizontal space whose width equals to the
'\parindent' length, the normal paragraph indentation.  It is used to
add paragraph indentation where it would otherwise be suppressed.

   The default value for '\parindent' is '1em' in two-column mode,
otherwise '15pt' for '10pt' documents, '17pt' for '11pt', and '1.5em'
for '12pt'.

15.2 '\noindent'
================

When used at the beginning of the paragraph, this command suppresses any
paragraph indentation, as in this example.

     .. end of the prior paragraph.

     \noindent This paragraph is not indented.

   It has no effect when used in the middle of a paragraph.

   To eliminate paragraph indentation in an entire document, put
'\setlength{\parindent}{0pt}' in the preamble.

15.3 '\parskip'
===============

'\parskip' is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added before
each paragraph.  The default is '0pt plus1pt'.

15.4 Marginal notes
===================

Synopsis:

     \marginpar[LEFT]{RIGHT}

   The '\marginpar' command creates a note in the margin.  The first
line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text
where the '\marginpar' occurs.

   When you only specify the mandatory argument RIGHT, the text will be
placed

   * in the right margin for one-sided layout (option 'oneside', see
     *note Document class options::);
   * in the outside margin for two-sided layout (option 'twoside', see
     *note Document class options::);
   * in the nearest margin for two-column layout (option 'twocolumn',
     see *note Document class options::).

   The command '\reversemarginpar' places subsequent marginal notes in
the opposite (inside) margin.  '\normalmarginpar' places them in the
default position.

   When you specify both arguments, LEFT is used for the left margin,
and RIGHT is used for the right margin.

   The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable
hyphenation there by beginning the node with '\hspace{0pt}'.

   These parameters affect the formatting of the note:

'\marginparpush'
     Minimum vertical space between notes; default '7pt' for '12pt'
     documents, '5pt' else.

'\marginparsep'
     Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default '11pt'
     for '10pt' documents, '10pt' else.

'\marginparwidth'
     Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided '10pt' document
     is '90pt', '83pt' for '11pt', and '68pt' for '12pt'; '17pt' more in
     each case for a two-sided document.  In two column mode, the
     default is '48pt'.

   The standard LaTeX routine for marginal notes does not prevent notes
from falling off the bottom of the page.

16 Math formulas
****************

There are three environments that put LaTeX in math mode:

'math'
     For formulas that appear right in the text.
'displaymath'
     For formulas that appear on their own line.
'equation'
     The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an
     equation number in the right margin.

   The 'math' environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, but
the 'displaymath' and 'equation' environments can be used only in
paragraph mode.  The 'math' and 'displaymath' environments are used so
often that they have the following short forms:

     \(...\)   instead of   \begin{math}...\end{math}
     \[...\]   instead of   \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath}

   In fact, the 'math' environment is so common that it has an even
shorter form:

     $ ... $   instead of   \(...\)

   The '\boldmath' command changes math letters and symbols to be in a
bold font.  It is used _outside_ of math mode.  Conversely, the
'\unboldmath' command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font; it too
is used _outside_ of math mode.

   The '\displaystyle' declaration forces the size and style of the
formula to be that of 'displaymath', e.g., with limits above and below
summations.  For example:

     $\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n $

16.1 Subscripts & superscripts
==============================

In math mode, use the caret character '^' to make the EXP appear as a
superscript, ie. type '^{EXP}'.  Similarly, in math mode,
underscore '_{EXP}' makes a subscript out of EXP.

   In this example the '0' and '1' appear as subscripts while the '2' is
a superscript.

     \( (x_0+x_1)^2 \)

   To have more than one character in EXP use curly braces as in
'e^{-2x}'.

   LaTeX handles superscripts on superscripts, and all of that stuff, in
the natural way, so expressions such as 'e^{x^2}' and 'x_{a_0}' will
look right.  It also does the right thing when something has both a
subscript and a superscript.  In this example the '0' appears at the
bottom of the integral sign while the '10' appears at the top.

     \int_0^{10} x^2 \,dx

   You can put a superscript or subscript before a symbol with a
construct such as '{}_t K^2' in math mode (the initial '{}' prevents the
prefixed subscript from being attached to any prior symbols in the
expression).

   Outside of math mode, a construct like 'A
test$_\textnormal{subscript}$' will produce a subscript typeset in text
mode, not math mode.  Note that there are packages specialized for
writing Chemical formulas such as 'mhchem'.

16.2 Math symbols
=================

LaTeX provides almost any mathematical symbol you're likely to need.
For example, if you include '$\pi$' in your source, you will get the pi
symbol U+03C0.

   Below is a list of commonly-available symbols.  It is by no means an
exhaustive list.  Each symbol here is described with a short phrase, and
its symbol class (which determines the spacing around it) is given in
parenthesis.  The commands for these symbols can be used only in math
mode.

'\|'
     U+2225 Parallel (relation).  Synonym: '\parallel'.

'\aleph'
     U+2135 Aleph, transfinite cardinal (ordinary).

'\alpha'
     U+03B1 Lower case Greek letter alpha (ordinary).

'\amalg'
     U+2A3F Disjoint union (binary)

'\angle'
     U+2220 Geometric angle (ordinary).  Similar: less-than sign '<' and
     angle bracket '\langle'.

'\approx'
     U+2248 Almost equal to (relation).

'\ast'
     U+2217 Asterisk operator, convolution, six-pointed (binary).
     Synonym: '*', which is often a superscript or subscript, as in the
     Kleene star.  Similar: '\star', which is five-pointed, and is
     sometimes used as a general binary operation, and sometimes
     reserved for cross-correlation.

'\asymp'
     U+224D Asymptomatically equivalent (relation).

'\backslash'
     \ Backslash (ordinary).  Similar: set minus '\setminus', and
     '\textbackslash' for backslash outside of math mode.

'\beta'
     U+03B2 Lower case Greek letter beta (ordinary).

'\bigcap'
     U+22C2 Variable-sized, or n-ary, intersection (operator).  Similar:
     binary intersection '\cap'.

'\bigcirc'
     U+26AA Circle, larger (binary).  Similar: function
     composition '\circ'.

'\bigcup'
     U+22C3 Variable-sized, or n-ary, union (operator).  Similar: binary
     union '\cup'.

'\bigodot'
     U+2A00 Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled dot operator (operator).

'\bigoplus'
     U+2A01 Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled plus operator (operator).

'\bigotimes'
     U+2A02 Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled times operator (operator).

'\bigtriangledown'
     U+25BD Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing down
     (operator).

'\bigtriangleup'
     U+25B3 Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle pointing up
     (operator).

'\bigsqcup'
     U+2A06 Variable-sized, or n-ary, square union (operator).

'\biguplus'
     U+2A04 Variable-sized, or n-ary, union operator with a plus
     (operator).  (Note that the name has only one p.)

'\bigvee'
     U+22C1 Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-and (operator).

'\bigwedge'
     U+22C0 Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-or (operator).

'\bot'
     U+22A5 Up tack, bottom, least element of a poset, or a
     contradiction (ordinary).  See also '\top'.

'\bowtie'
     U+22C8 Natural join of two relations (relation).

'\Box'
     U+25A1 Modal operator for necessity; square open box (ordinary).
     This is not available in Plain TeX.  In LaTeX you need to load the
     'amssymb' package.

'\bullet'
     U+2022 Bullet (binary).  Similar: multiplication dot '\cdot'.

'\cap'
     U+2229 Intersection of two sets (binary).  Similar: variable-sized
     operator '\bigcap'.

'\cdot'
     U+22C5 Multiplication (binary).  Similar: Bullet dot '\bullet'.

'\chi'
     U+03C7 Lower case Greek chi (ordinary).

'\circ'
     U+2218 Function composition, ring operator (binary).  Similar:
     variable-sized operator '\bigcirc'.

'\clubsuit'
     U+2663 Club card suit (ordinary).

'\complement'
     U+2201 Set complement, used as a superscript as in
     '$S^\complement$' (ordinary).  This is not available in Plain TeX.
     In LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package.  Also used:
     '$S^{\mathsf{c}}$' or '$\bar{S}$'.

'\cong'
     U+2245 Congruent (relation).

'\coprod'
     U+2210 Coproduct (operator).

'\cup'
     U+222A Union of two sets (binary).  Similar: variable-sized
     operator '\bigcup'.

'\dagger'
     U+2020 Dagger relation (binary).

'\dashv'
     U+22A3 Dash with vertical, reversed turnstile (relation).  Similar:
     turnstile '\vdash'.

'\ddagger'
     U+2021 Double dagger relation (binary).

'\Delta'
     U+0394 Greek upper case delta, used for increment (ordinary).

'\delta'
     U+03B4 Greek lower case delta (ordinary).

'\Diamond'
     U+25C7 Large diamond operator (ordinary).  This is not available in
     Plain TeX.  In LaTeX you must load the 'amssymb' package.

'\diamond'
     U+22C4 Diamond operator, or diamond bullet (binary).  Similar:
     large diamond '\Diamond', circle bullet '\bullet'.

'\diamondsuit'
     U+2662 Diamond card suit (ordinary).

'\div'
     U+00F7 Division sign (binary).

'\doteq'
     U+2250 Approaches the limit (relation).  Similar: geometrically
     equal to '\Doteq'.

'\downarrow'
     U+2193 Down arrow, converges (relation).  Similar: double line down
     arrow '\Downarrow'.

'\Downarrow'
     U+21D3 Double line down arrow (relation).  Similar: single line
     down arrow '\downarrow'.

'\ell'
     U+2113 Lower-case cursive letter l (ordinary).

'\emptyset'
     U+2205 Empty set symbol (ordinary).  Similar: reversed empty
     set '\varnothing'.

'\epsilon'
     U+03F5 Lower case Greek-text letter (ordinary).  More widely used
     in mathematics is the curly epsilon '\varepsilon' U+03B5.  Related:
     the set membership relation '\in' U+2208.

'\equiv'
     U+2261 Equivalence (relation).

'\eta'
     U+03B7 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\exists'
     U+2203 Existential quantifier (ordinary).

'\flat'
     U+266D Musical flat (ordinary).

'\forall'
     U+2200 Universal quantifier (ordinary).

'\frown'
     U+2322 Downward curving arc (ordinary).

'\Gamma'
     U+0393 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\gamma'
     U+03B3 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\ge'
     U+2265 Greater than or equal to (relation).  This is a synonym
     for '\geq'.

'\geq'
     U+2265 Greater than or equal to (relation).  This is a synonym
     for '\ge'.

'\gets'
     U+2190 Is assigned the value (relation).  Synonym: '\leftarrow'.

'\gg'
     U+226B Much greater than (relation).  Similar: much less
     than '\ll'.

'\hbar'
     U+210F Planck constant over two pi (ordinary).

'\heartsuit'
     U+2661 Heart card suit (ordinary).

'\hookleftarrow'
     U+21A9 Hooked left arrow (relation).

'\hookrightarrow'
     U+21AA Hooked right arrow (relation).

'\iff'
     U+27F7 If and only if (relation).  It is '\Longleftrightarrow' with
     a '\thickmuskip' on either side.

'\Im'
     U+2111 Imaginary part (ordinary).  See: real part '\Re'.

'\in'
     U+2208 Set element (relation).  See also: lower case Greek letter
     epsilon '\epsilon'U+03F5 and rounded small epsilon '\varepsilon'.

'\infty'
     U+221E Infinity (ordinary).

'\int'
     U+222B Integral (operator).

'\iota'
     U+03B9 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\Join'
     U+2A1D Condensed bowtie symbol (relation).  Not available in Plain
     TeX.

'\kappa'
     U+03BA Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\Lambda'
     U+039B Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\lambda'
     U+03BB Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\land'
     U+2227 Logical and (binary).  This is a synonym for '\wedge'.  See
     also logical or '\lor'.

'\langle'
     U+27E8 Left angle, or sequence, bracket (opening).  Similar:
     less-than '<'.  Matches '\rangle'.

'\lbrace'
     U+007B Left curly brace (opening).  Synonym: '\{'.
     Matches '\rbrace'.

'\lbrack'
     U+005B Left square bracket (opening).  Synonym: '['.
     Matches '\rbrack'.

'\lceil'
     U+2308 Left ceiling bracket, like a square bracket but with the
     bottom shaved off (opening).  Matches '\rceil'.

'\le'
     U+2264 Less than or equal to (relation).  This is a synonym
     for '\leq'.

'\leadsto'
     U+21DD Squiggly right arrow (relation).  This is not available in
     Plain TeX.  In LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package.  To get
     this symbol outside of math mode you can put
     '\newcommand*{\Leadsto}{\ensuremath{\leadsto}}' in the preamble and
     then use '\Leadsto' instead.

'\Leftarrow'
     U+21D0 Is implied by, double-line left arrow (relation).  Similar:
     single-line left arrow '\leftarrow'.

'\leftarrow'
     U+2190 Single-line left arrow (relation).  Synonym: '\gets'.
     Similar: double-line left arrow '\Leftarrow'.

'\leftharpoondown'
     U+21BD Single-line left harpoon, barb under bar (relation).

'\leftharpoonup'
     U+21BC Single-line left harpoon, barb over bar (relation).

'\Leftrightarrow'
     U+21D4 Bi-implication; double-line double-headed arrow (relation).
     Similar: single-line double headed arrow '\leftrightarrow'.

'\leftrightarrow'
     U+2194 Single-line double-headed arrow (relation).  Similar:
     double-line double headed arrow '\Leftrightarrow'.

'\leq'
     U+2264 Less than or equal to (relation).  This is a synonym
     for '\le'.

'\lfloor'
     U+230A Left floor bracket (opening).

'\lhd'
     U+25C1 Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing left (binary).  This
     is not available in Plain TeX.  In LaTeX you should load the
     'amssymb' package.  For the normal subgroup symbol you should load
     'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleleft' (which is a relation and so
     gives better spacing).

'\ll'
     U+226A Much less than (relation).  Similar: much greater
     than '\gg'.

'\lnot'
     U+00AC Logical negation (ordinary).  Synonym: '\neg'.

'\longleftarrow'
     U+27F5 Long single-line left arrow (relation).  Similar: long
     double-line left arrow '\Longleftarrow'.

'\longleftrightarrow'
     U+27F7 Long single-line double-headed arrow (relation).  Similar:
     long double-line double-headed arrow '\Longleftrightarrow'.

'\longmapsto'
     U+27FC Long single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar
     (relation).  Similar: shorter version '\mapsto'.

'\longrightarrow'
     U+27F6 Long single-line right arrow (relation).  Similar: long
     double-line right arrow '\Longrightarrow'.

'\lor'
     U+2228 Logical or (binary).  Synonym: wedge '\wedge'.

'\mapsto'
     U+21A6 Single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar
     (relation).  Similar: longer version '\longmapsto'.

'\mho'
     U+2127 Conductance, half-circle rotated capital omega (ordinary).
     This is not available in Plain TeX.  In LaTeX you should load the
     'amssymb' package.

'\mid'
     U+2223 Single-line vertical bar (relation).  A typical use of
     '\mid' is for a set '\{\, x \mid x\geq 5 \,\}'.

     Similar: '\vert' and '|' produce the same single-line vertical bar
     symbol but without any spacing (they fall in class ordinary) and
     you should not use them as relations but instead only as ordinals,
     i.e., footnote symbols.  For absolute value, see the entry
     for '\vert' and for norm see the entry for '\Vert'.

'\models'
     U+22A8 Entails, or satisfies; double turnstile, short double dash
     (relation).  Similar: long double dash '\vDash'.

'\mp'
     U+2213 Minus or plus (relation).

'\mu'
     U+03BC Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\nabla'
     U+2207 Hamilton's del, or differential, operator (ordinary).

'\natural'
     U+266E Musical natural notation (ordinary).

'\ne'
     U+2260 Not equal (relation).  Synonym: '\neq'.

'\nearrow'
     U+2197 North-east arrow (relation).

'\neg'
     U+00AC Logical negation (ordinary).  Synonym: '\lnot'.  Sometimes
     instead used for negation: '\sim'.

'\neq'
     U+2260 Not equal (relation).  Synonym: '\ne'.

'\ni'
     U+220B Reflected membership epsilon; has the member (relation).
     Synonym: '\owns'.  Similar: is a member of '\in'.

'\not'
     U+0020U+00A0U+0338 Long solidus, or slash, used to overstrike a
     following operator (relation).

     Many negated operators that don't require '\not' are available,
     particularly with the 'amssymb' package.  For example, '\notin' is
     probably typographically preferable to '\not\in'.

'\notin'
     U+2209 Not an element of (relation).  Similar: not subset
     of '\nsubseteq'.

'\nu'
     U+03BD Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\nwarrow'
     U+2196 North-west arrow (relation).

'\odot'
     U+2299 Dot inside a circle (binary).  Similar: variable-sized
     operator '\bigodot'.

'\oint'
     U+222E Contour integral, integral with circle in the middle
     (operator).

'\Omega'
     U+03A9 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\omega'
     U+03C9 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\ominus'
     U+2296 Minus sign, or dash, inside a circle (binary).

'\oplus'
     U+2295 Plus sign inside a circle (binary).  Similar: variable-sized
     operator '\bigoplus'.

'\oslash'
     U+2298 Solidus, or slash, inside a circle (binary).

'\otimes'
     U+2297 Times sign, or cross, inside a circle (binary).  Similar:
     variable-sized operator '\bigotimes'.

'\owns'
     U+220B Reflected membership epsilon; has the member (relation).
     Synonym: '\ni'.  Similar: is a member of '\in'.

'\parallel'
     U+2225 Parallel (relation).  Synonym: '\|'.

'\partial'
     U+2202 Partial differential (ordinary).

'\perp'
     U+27C2 Perpendicular (relation).  Similar: '\bot' uses the same
     glyph but the spacing is different because it is in the class
     ordinary.

'\phi'
     U+03D5 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The variant form is
     '\varphi' U+03C6.

'\Pi'
     U+03A0 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\pi'
     U+03C0 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The variant form is
     '\varpi' U+03D6.

'\pm'
     U+00B1 Plus or minus (binary).

'\prec'
     U+227A Preceeds (relation).  Similar: less than '<'.

'\preceq'
     U+2AAF Preceeds or equals (relation).  Similar: less than or
     equals '\leq'.

'\prime'
     U+2032 Prime, or minute in a time expression (ordinary).  Typically
     used as a superscript '$A^\prime$'.  Note that '$f^\prime$' and
     '$f'$' produce the same result.  An advantage of the second is that
     '$f'''$' produces the the desired symbol, that is, the same result
     as '$f^{\prime\prime\prime}$', but uses somewhat less typing.  Note
     that you can only use '\prime' in math mode but you can type right
     single quote ''' in text mode also, although it resuts in a
     different look than in math mode.

'\prod'
     U+220F Product (operator).

'\propto'
     U+221D Is proportional to (relation)

'\Psi'
     U+03A8 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\psi'
     U+03C8 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\rangle'
     U+27B9 Right angle, or sequence, bracket (closing).  Similar:
     greater than '>'.  Matches:'\langle'.

'\rbrace'
     U+007D Right curly brace (closing).  Synonym: '\}'.
     Matches '\lbrace'.

'\rbrack'
     U+005D Right square bracket (closing).  Synonym: ']'.
     Matches '\lbrack'.

'\rceil'
     U+2309 Right ceiling bracket (closing).  Matches '\lceil'.

'\Re'
     U+211C Real part, real numbers, cursive capital R (ordinary).
     Related: double-line, or blackboard bold, R '\mathbb{R}'; to access
     this, load the 'amsfonts' package.

'\restriction'
     U+21BE Restriction of a function (relation).
     Synonym: '\upharpoonright'.  Not available in Plain TeX.  In LaTeX
     you should load the 'amssymb' package.

'\rfloor'
     U+230B Right floor bracket, a right square bracket with the top cut
     off (closing).  Matches '\lfloor'.

'\rhd'
     U+25C1 Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing right (binary).  This
     is not available in Plain TeX.  In LaTeX you should load the
     'amssymb' package.  For the normal subgroup symbol you should
     instead load 'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleright' (which is a
     relation and so gives better spacing).

'\rho'
     U+03C1 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The variant form is
     '\varrho' U+03F1.

'\Rightarrow'
     U+21D2 Implies, right-pointing double line arrow (relation).
     Similar: right single-line arrow '\rightarrow'.

'\rightarrow'
     U+2192 Right-pointing single line arrow (relation).
     Synonym: '\to'.  Similar: right double line arrow '\Rightarrow'.

'\rightharpoondown'
     U+21C1 Right-pointing harpoon with barb below the line (relation).

'\rightharpoonup'
     U+21C0 Right-pointing harpoon with barb above the line (relation).

'\rightleftharpoons'
     U+21CC Right harpoon up above left harpoon down (relation).

'\searrow'
     U+2198 Arrow pointing southeast (relation).

'\setminus'
     U+29F5 Set difference, reverse solidus or slash, like \ (binary).
     Similar: backslash '\backslash' and also '\textbackslash' outside
     of math mode.

'\sharp'
     U+266F Musical sharp (ordinary).

'\Sigma'
     U+03A3 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\sigma'
     U+03C3 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The variant form is
     '\varsigma' U+03C2.

'\sim'
     U+223C Similar, in a relation (relation).

'\simeq'
     U+2243 Similar or equal to, in a relation (relation).

'\smallint'
     U+222B Integral sign that does not change to a larger size in a
     display (operator).

'\smile'
     U+2323 Upward curving arc (ordinary).

'\spadesuit'
     U+2660 Spade card suit (ordinary).

'\sqcap'
     U+2293 Square intersection symbol (binary).  Similar:
     intersection 'cap'.

'\sqcup'
     U+2294 Square union symbol (binary).  Similar: union 'cup'.
     Related: variable-sized operator '\bigsqcup'.

'\sqsubset'
     U+228F Square subset symbol (relation).  Similar: subset '\subset'.
     This is not available in Plain TeX.  In LaTeX you should load the
     'amssymb' package.

'\sqsubseteq'
     U+2291 Square subset or equal symbol (binary).  Similar: subset or
     equal to '\subseteq'.

'\sqsupset'
     U+2290 Square superset symbol (relation).  Similar:
     superset '\supset'.  This is not available in Plain TeX.  In LaTeX
     you should load the 'amssymb' package.

'\sqsupseteq'
     U+2292 Square superset or equal symbol (binary).  Similar: superset
     or equal '\supseteq'.

'\star'
     U+22C6 Five-pointed star, sometimes used as a general binary
     operation but sometimes reserved for cross-correlation (binary).
     Similar: the synonyms asterisk '*' and '\ast', which are
     six-pointed, and more often appear as a superscript or subscript,
     as with the Kleene star.

'\subset'
     U+2282 Subset (occasionally, is implied by) (relation).

'\subseteq'
     U+2286 Subset or equal to (relation).

'\succ'
     U+227B Comes after, succeeds (relation).  Similar: is less
     than '>'.

'\succeq'
     U+2AB0 Succeeds or is equal to (relation).  Similar: less than or
     equal to '\leq'.

'\sum'
     U+2211 Summation (operator).  Similar: Greek capital
     sigma '\Sigma'.

'\supset'
     U+2283 Superset (relation).

'\supseteq'
     U+2287 Superset or equal to (relation).

'\surd'
     U+221A Radical symbol (ordinary).  The LaTeX command '\sqrt{..}'
     typesets the square root of the argument, with a bar that extends
     to cover the argument.

'\swarrow'
     U+2199 Southwest-pointing arrow (relation).

'\tau'
     U+03C4 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\theta'
     U+03B8 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The variant form is
     '\vartheta' U+03D1.

'\times'
     U+00D7 Primary school multiplication sign (binary).  See
     also '\cdot'.

'\to'
     U+2192 Right-pointing single line arrow (relation).
     Synonym: '\rightarrow'.

'\top'
     U+22A4 Top, greatest element of a poset (ordinary).  See
     also '\bot'.

'\triangle'
     U+25B3 Triangle (ordinary).

'\triangleleft'
     U+25C1 Not-filled triangle pointing left (binary).
     Similar: '\lhd'.  For the normal subgroup symbol you should load
     'amssymb' and use '\vartriangleleft' (which is a relation and so
     gives better spacing).

'\triangleright'
     U+25B7 Not-filled triangle pointing right (binary).  For the normal
     subgroup symbol you should instead load 'amssymb' and
     use '\vartriangleright' (which is a relation and so gives better
     spacing).

'\unlhd'
     U+22B4 Left-pointing not-filled arrowhead, that is, triangle, with
     a line under (binary).  This is not available in Plain TeX.  In
     LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package.  For the normal
     subgroup symbol load 'amssymb' and use '\vartrianglelefteq' (which
     is a relation and so gives better spacing).

'\unrhd'
     U+22B5 Right-pointing not-filled arrowhead, that is, triangle, with
     a line under (binary).  This is not available in Plain TeX.  In
     LaTeX you should load the 'amssymb' package.  For the normal
     subgroup symbol load 'amssymb' and use '\vartrianglerighteq' (which
     is a relation and so gives better spacing).

'\Uparrow'
     U+21D1 Double-line upward-pointing arrow (relation).  Similar:
     single-line up-pointing arrow '\uparrow'.

'\uparrow'
     U+2191 Single-line upward-pointing arrow, diverges (relation).
     Similar: double-line up-pointing arrow '\Uparrow'.

'\Updownarrow'
     U+21D5 Double-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation).
     Similar: single-line upward-and-downward-pointing
     arrow '\updownarrow'.

'\updownarrow'
     U+2195 Single-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow (relation).
     Similar: double-line upward-and-downward-pointing
     arrow '\Updownarrow'.

'\upharpoonright'
     U+21BE Up harpoon, with barb on right side (relation).
     Synonym: '\restriction'.  Not available in Plain TeX.  In LaTeX you
     should load the 'amssymb' package.

'\uplus'
     U+228E Multiset union, a union symbol with a plus symbol in the
     middle (binary).  Similar: union '\cup'.  Related: variable-sized
     operator '\biguplus'.

'\Upsilon'
     U+03A5 Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\upsilon'
     U+03C5 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\varepsilon'
     U+03B5 Rounded small epsilon (ordinary).  This is more widely used
     in mathematics than the non-variant lower case Greek-text letter
     form '\epsilon' U+03F5.  Related: set membership '\in'.

'\varphi'
     U+03C6 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The
     non-variant form is '\phi' U+03D5.

'\varpi'
     U+03D6 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The
     non-variant form is '\pi' U+03C0.

'\varrho'
     U+03F1 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The
     non-variant form is '\rho' U+03C1.

'\varsigma'
     U+03C2 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The
     non-variant form is '\sigma' U+03C3.

'\vartheta'
     U+03D1 Variant on the lower case Greek letter (ordinary).  The
     non-variant form is '\theta' U+03B8.

'\vdash'
     U+22A2 Provable; turnstile, vertical and a dash (relation).
     Similar: turnstile rotated a half-circle '\dashv'.

'\vee'
     U+2228 Logical or; a downwards v shape (binary).  Related: logical
     and '\wedge'.  Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigvee'.

'\Vert'
     U+2016 Vertical double bar (ordinary).  Similar: vertical single
     bar '\vert'.

     For a norm you can use the 'mathtools' package and add
     '\DeclarePairedDelimiter\norm{\lVert}{\rVert}' to your preamble.
     This gives you three command variants for double-line vertical bars
     that are correctly horizontally spaced: if in the document body you
     write the starred version '$\norm*{M^\perp}$' then the height of
     the vertical bars will match the height of the argument, whereas
     with '\norm{M^\perp}' the bars do not grow with the height of the
     argument but instead are the default height, and '\norm[SIZE
     COMMAND]{M^\perp}' also gives bars that do not grow but are set to
     the size given in the SIZE COMMAND, e.g., '\Bigg'.

'\vert'
     U+007C Single line vertical bar (ordinary).  Similar: double-line
     vertical bar '\Vert'.  For such that, as in the definition of a
     set, use '\mid' because it is a relation.

     For absolute value you can use the 'mathtools' package and add
     '\DeclarePairedDelimiter\abs{\lvert}{\rvert}' to your preamble.
     This gives you three command variants for single-line vertical bars
     that are correctly horizontally spaced: if in the document body you
     write the starred version '$\abs*{\frac{22}{7}}$' then the height
     of the vertical bars will match the height of the argument, whereas
     with '\abs{\frac{22}{7}}' the bars do not grow with the height of
     the argument but instead are the default height, and '\abs[SIZE
     COMMAND]{\frac{22}{7}}' also gives bars that do not grow but are
     set to the size given in the SIZE COMMAND, e.g., '\Bigg'.

'\wedge'
     U+2227 Logical and (binary).  Synonym: '\land'.  See also logical
     or '\vee'.  Similar: variable-sized operator '\bigwedge'.

'\wp'
     U+2118 Weierstrass p (ordinary).

'\wr'
     U+2240 Wreath product (binary).

'\Xi'
     U+039E Upper case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\xi'
     U+03BE Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

'\zeta'
     U+03B6 Lower case Greek letter (ordinary).

16.3 Math functions
===================

These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper
spacing.

'\arccos'
     \arccos

'\arcsin'
     \arcsin

'\arctan'
     \arctan

'\arg'
     \arg

'\bmod'
     Binary modulo operator (x \bmod y)

'\cos'
     \cos

'\cosh'
     \cosh

'\cot'
     \cot

'\coth'
     \coth

'\csc'
     \csc

'\deg'
     \deg

'\det'
     \det

'\dim'
     \dim

'\exp'
     \exp

'\gcd'
     \gcd

'\hom'
     \hom

'\inf'
     \inf

'\ker'
     \ker

'\lg'
     \lg

'\lim'
     \lim

'\liminf'
     \liminf

'\limsup'
     \limsup

'\ln'
     \ln

'\log'
     \log

'\max'
     \max

'\min'
     \min

'\pmod'
     parenthesized modulus, as in (\pmod 2^n - 1)

'\Pr'
     \Pr

'\sec'
     \sec

'\sin'
     \sin

'\sinh'
     \sinh

'\sup'
     sup

'\tan'
     \tan

'\tanh'
     \tanh

16.4 Math accents
=================

LaTeX provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters in
math.  These are different from accents in normal text (*note
Accents::).

'\acute'
     Math acute accent: \acute{x}.

'\bar'
     Math bar-over accent: \bar{x}.

'\breve'
     Math breve accent: \breve{x}.

'\check'
     Math ha'c<ek (check) accent: \check{x}.

'\ddot'
     Math dieresis accent: \ddot{x}.

'\dot'
     Math dot accent: \dot{x}.

'\grave'
     Math grave accent: \grave{x}.

'\hat'
     Math hat (circumflex) accent: \hat{x}.

'\imath'
     Math dotless i.

'\jmath'
     Math dotless j.

'\mathring'
     Math ring accent: x*.

'\tilde'
     Math tilde accent: \tilde{x}.

'\vec'
     Math vector symbol: \vec{x}.

'\widehat'
     Math wide hat accent: \widehat{x+y}.

'\widetilde'
     Math wide tilde accent: \widetilde{x+y}.

16.5 Spacing in math mode
=========================

In a 'math' environment, LaTeX ignores the spaces that you use in the
source, and instead puts in the spacing according to the normal rules
for mathematics texts.

   Many math mode spacing definitions are expressed in terms of the math
unit "mu" given by 1 em = 18 mu, where the em is taken from the current
math symbols family (*note Units of length::).  LaTeX provides the
following commands for use in math mode:

'\;'
     Normally '5.0mu plus 5.0mu'.  The longer name is '\thickspace'.
     Math mode only.

'\:'
'\>'
     Normally '4.0mu plus 2.0mu minus 4.0mu'.  The longer name is
     '\medspace'.  Math mode only.

'\,'
     Normally '3mu'.  The longer name is '\thinspace'.  This can be used
     in both math mode and text mode.

'\!'
     A negative thin space.  Normally '-3mu'.  Math mode only.

'\quad'
     This is 18mu, that is, 1em.  This is often used for space
     surrounding equations or expressions, for instance for the space
     between two equations inside a 'displaymath' environment.  It is
     available in both text and math mode.

'\qquad'
     A length of 2 quads, that is, 36mu = 2em.  It is available in both
     text and math mode.

   In this example a thinspace separates the function from the
infinitesimal.

     \int_0^1 f(x)\,dx

16.6 Math miscellany
====================

'\*'
     A "discretionary" multiplication symbol, at which a line break is
     allowed.

'\cdots'
     A horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the
     line.

'\ddots'
     A diagonal ellipsis: \ddots.

'\frac{num}{den}'
     Produces the fraction 'num' divided by 'den'.

'\left DELIM1 ... \right DELIM2'
     The two delimiters need not match; '.' acts as a null delimiter,
     producing no output.  The delimiters are sized according to the
     math in between.  Example: '\left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right]'.

'\overbrace{TEXT}'
     Generates a brace over TEXT.  For example,
     \overbrace{x+\cdots+x}^{k \rm\;times}.

'\overline{TEXT}'
     Generates a horizontal line over TEX.  For example, \overline{x+y}.

'\sqrt[ROOT]{arg}'
     Produces the representation of the square root of ARG.  The
     optional argument ROOT determines what root to produce.  For
     example, the cube root of 'x+y' would be typed as
     '$\sqrt[3]{x+y}$'.

'\stackrel{TEXT}{RELATION}'
     Puts TEXT above RELATION.  For example,
     '\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}'.

'\underbrace{math}'
     Generates MATH with a brace underneath.

'\underline{text}'
     Causes TEXT, which may be either math mode or not, to be
     underlined.  The line is always below the text, taking account of
     descenders.

'\vdots'
     Produces a vertical ellipsis.

17 Modes
********

When LaTeX is processing your input text, it is always in one of three
modes:

   * Paragraph mode
   * Math mode
   * Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short

   Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or
when LaTeX is processing the argument of certain text-producing
commands.

   "Paragraph mode" is the most common; it's the one LaTeX is in when
processing ordinary text.  In this mode, LaTeX breaks the input text
into lines and breaks the lines into pages.

   LaTeX is in "math mode" when it's generating a mathematical formula,
either displayed math or within a line.

   In "LR mode", as in paragraph mode, LaTeX considers the output that
it produces to be a string of words with spaces between them.  However,
unlike paragraph mode, LaTeX keeps going from left to right; it never
starts a new line in LR mode.  Even if you put a hundred words into an
'\mbox', LaTeX would keep typesetting them from left to right inside a
single box (and then most likely complain because the resulting box was
too wide to fit on the line).  LaTeX is in LR mode when it starts making
a box with an '\mbox' command.  You can get it to enter a different mode
inside the box--for example, you can make it enter math mode to put a
formula in the box.

   There are also several text-producing commands and environments for
making a box that put LaTeX into paragraph mode.  The box made by one of
these commands or environments will be called a 'parbox'.  When LaTeX is
in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in "inner
paragraph mode" (no page breaks).  Its normal paragraph mode, which it
starts out in, is called "outer paragraph mode".

18 Page styles
**************

The '\documentclass' command determines the size and position of the
page's head and foot.  The page style determines what goes in them.

18.1 '\maketitle'
=================

The '\maketitle' command generates a title on a separate title
page--except in the 'article' class, where the title is placed at the
top of the first page.  Information used to produce the title is
obtained from the following declarations:

'\author{NAME \and NAME2}'
     The '\author' command declares the document author(s), where the
     argument is a list of authors separated by '\and' commands.  Use
     '\\' to separate lines within a single author's entry--for example,
     to give the author's institution or address.

'\date{TEXT}'
     The '\date' command declares TEXT to be the document's date.  With
     no '\date' command, the current date (*note \today::) is used.

'\thanks{TEXT}'
     The '\thanks' command produces a '\footnote' to the title, usually
     used for credit acknowledgements.

'\title{TEXT}'
     The '\title' command declares TEXT to be the title of the document.
     Use '\\' to force a line break, as usual.

18.2 '\pagenumbering'
=====================

Synopsis:

     \pagenumbering{STYLE}

   Specifies the style of page numbers, according to STYLE; also resets
the page number to 1.  The STYLE argument is one of the following:

'arabic'
     arabic numerals

'roman'
     lowercase Roman numerals

'Roman'
     uppercase Roman numerals

'alph'
     lowercase letters

'Alph'
     uppercase letters

18.3 '\pagestyle'
=================

Synopsis:

     \pagestyle{STYLE}

   The '\pagestyle' command specifies how the headers and footers are
typeset from the current page onwards.  Values for STYLE:

'plain'
     Just a plain page number.

'empty'
     Empty headers and footers, e.g., no page numbers.

'headings'
     Put running headers on each page.  The document style specifies
     what goes in the headers.

'myheadings'
     Custom headers, specified via the '\markboth' or the '\markright'
     commands.

   Here are the descriptions of '\markboth' and '\markright':

'\markboth{LEFT}{RIGHT}'
     Sets both the left and the right heading.  A "left-hand heading"
     (LEFT) is generated by the last '\markboth' command before the end
     of the page, while a "right-hand heading" (RIGHT) is generated by
     the first '\markboth' or '\markright' that comes on the page if
     there is one, otherwise by the last one before the page.

'\markright{RIGHT}'
     Sets the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged.

18.4 '\thispagestyle{STYLE}'
============================

The '\thispagestyle' command works in the same manner as the
'\pagestyle' command (see previous section) except that it changes to
STYLE for the current page only.

19 Spaces
*********

LaTeX has many ways to produce white (or filled) space.

19.1 '\hspace'
==============

Synopsis:

     \hspace{LENGTH}
     \hspace*{LENGTH}

   Add the horizontal space given by LENGTH.  The LENGTH is a rubber
length, that is, it may contain a 'plus' or 'minus' component, in any
unit that LaTeX understands (*note Lengths::).

   This command can add both positive and negative space; adding
negative space is like backspacing.

   Normally when TeX breaks a paragraph into lines it discards white
space (glues and kerns) that would come at the start of a line, so you
get an inter-word space or a line break between words but not both.
This command's starred version '\hspace*{..}' puts a non-discardable
invisible item in front of the space, so the space appears in the
output.

   This example make a one-line paragraph that puts 'Name:' an inch from
the right margin.

     \noindent\makebox[\linewidth]{\hspace{\fill}Name:\hspace{1in}}

19.2 '\hfill'
=============

Produce a rubber length which has no natural space but can stretch
horizontally as far as needed (*note Lengths::).

   The command '\hfill' is equivalent to '\hspace{\fill}'.  For space
that does not disappear at line breaks use '\hspace*{\fill}' instead
(*note \hspace::).

19.3 '\(SPACE)' and \@
======================

Mark a punctuation character, typically a period, as either ending a
sentence or as ending an abbreviation.

   By default, in justifying a line LaTeX adjusts the space after a
sentence-ending period (or a question mark, exclamation point, comma, or
colon) more than the space between words (*note \frenchspacing::).
LaTeX assumes that the period ends a sentence unless it is preceded by a
capital letter, in which case it takes that period for part of an
abbreviation.  Note that if a sentence-ending period is immediately
followed by a right parenthesis or bracket, or right single or double
quote, then the intersentence space follows that parenthesis or quote.

   If you have a period ending an abbreviation whose last letter is not
a capital letter, and that abbreviation is not the last word in the
sentence, then follow that period with a backslash-space ('\ ') or a tie
('~').  Examples are 'Nat.\ Acad.\ Science', and 'Mr.~Bean', and
'(manure, etc.)\ for sale'.

   For other use of '\ ', see also *note \(SPACE) after CS::.

   In the opposite situation, if you have a capital letter followed by a
period that ends the sentence, then put '\@' on the left of that period.
For example, 'book by the MAA\@.' will have intersentence spacing after
the period.

   In contrast, putting '\@' on the right of a period tells TeX that the
period does not end the sentence.  In the example 'reserved words (if,
then, etc.\@) are different', TeX will put interword space after the
closing parenthesis (note that '\@' is before the parenthesis).

19.4 '\ ' after a control sequence
==================================

The '\ ' command is often used after control sequences to keep them from
gobbling the space that follows, as in '\TeX\ is a nice system.' And,
under normal circumstances '\'<tab> and '\'<newline> are equivalent to
'\ '.  For other use of '\ ', see also *note \(SPACE) and \@::.

   Some people prefer to use '{}' for the same purpose, as in '\TeX{} is
a nice system.' This has the advantage that you can always write it the
same way, like '\TeX{}', whether it is followed by a space or by a
punctuation mark.  Please compare:

     \TeX\ is a nice system. \TeX, a nice system.

     \TeX{} is a nice system. \TeX{}, a nice system.

   When you define user commands (*note \newcommand & \renewcommand::)
you can prevent the space gobbling after the command by using the
package 'xspace' and inserting '\xspace' at the end of the definition
For instance:
     \documentclass{minimal}
     \usepackage{xspace}
     \newcommand*{\Loup}{Grand Cric\xspace}
     \begin{document}
     Que le \Loup me croque !
     \end{document}

   A quick hack to use '\xspace' for existing command is as follows:
     \documentclass{minimal}
     \usepackage{xspace}
     \newcommand*{\SansXspaceTeX}{}
     \let\SansXspaceTeX\TeX
     \renewcommand{\TeX}{\SansXspaceTeX\xspace}
     \begin{document}
     \TeX is a nice system.
     \end{document}

19.5 '\frenchspacing'
=====================

This declaration (from Plain TeX) causes LaTeX to treat intersentence
spacing in the same way as interword spacing.

   In justifying the text in a line, some typographic traditions,
including English, prefer to adjust the space between sentences (or
after other punctuation marks) more than the space between words.
Following this declaration, all spaces are instead treated equally.

   Revert to the default behavior by declaring '\nonfrenchspacing'.

19.6 '\thinspace': Insert 1/6em
===============================

'\thinspace' produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that is 1/6
of an em.  This is the proper space to use between nested quotes, as in
'".

19.7 '\/': Insert italic correction
===================================

The '\/' command produces an "italic correction".  This is a small space
defined by the font designer for a given character, to avoid the
character colliding with whatever follows.  The italic f character
typically has a large italic correction value.

   If the following character is a period or comma, it's not necessary
to insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a
very small height.  However, with semicolons or colons, as well as
normal letters, it can help.  Compare f: f; (in the TeX output, the 'f's
are nicely separated) with f: f;.

   When changing fonts with commands such as '\textit{italic text}' or
'{\itshape italic text}', LaTeX will automatically insert an italic
correction if appropriate (*note Font styles::).

   Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic
correction.  Compare pdfTeX (in the TeX output, there is a small space
after the 'f') with pdfTeX.

   There is no concept of italic correction in math mode; spacing is
done in a different way.

19.8 '\hrulefill \dotfill'
==========================

Produce an infinite rubber length (*note Lengths::) filled with a
horizontal rule (that is, a line) or with dots, instead of just white
space.

   When placed between blank lines this example creates a paragraph that
is left and right justified, where the space in the middle is filled
with evenly spaced dots.

     \noindent Jack Aubrey\dotfill Melbury Lodge

   To make the rule or dots go to the line's end use '\null' at the
start or end.

   To change the rule's thickness, copy the definition and adjust it, as
with '\renewcommand{\hrulefill}{\leavevmode\leaders\hrule height
1pt\hfill\kern\z@}', which changes the default thickness of 0.4pt to
1pt.  Similarly, adjust the dot spacing as with
'\renewcommand{\dotfill}{\leavevmode\cleaders\hb@xt@ 1.00em{\hss .\hss
}\hfill\kern\z@}', which changes the default length of 0.33em to 1.00em.

19.9 '\addvspace'
=================

'\addvspace{LENGTH}'

   Add a vertical space of height LENGTH, which is a rubber length
(*note Lengths::).  However, if vertical space has already been added to
the same point in the output by a previous '\addvspace' command then
this command will not add more space than what is needed to make the
natural length of the total vertical space equal to LENGTH.

   Use this command to adjust the vertical space above or below an
environment that starts a new paragraph.  (For instance, a Theorem
environment is defined to begin and end in '\addvspace{..}' so that two
consecutive Theorem's are separated by one vertical space, not two.)

   This command is fragile (*note \protect::).

   The error 'Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item' means that you
were not in vertical mode when you invoked this command; one way to
change that is to precede this command with a '\par' command.

19.10 '\bigskip \medskip \smallskip'
====================================

These commands produce a given amount of space, specified by the
document class.

'\bigskip'
     The same as '\vspace{\bigskipamount}', ordinarily about one line
     space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the 'book' and
     'article' classes is '12pt plus 4pt minus 4pt').

'\medskip'
     The same as '\vspace{\medskipamount}', ordinarily about half of a
     line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the 'book' and
     'article' classes is '6pt plus 2pt minus 2pt').

'\smallskip'
     The same as '\vspace{\smallskipamount}', ordinarily about a quarter
     of a line space, with stretch and shrink (the default for the
     'book' and 'article' classes is '3pt plus 1pt minus 1pt').

19.11 '\vfill'
==============

End the current paragraph and insert a vertical rubber length (*note
Lengths::) that is infinite, so it can stretch or shrink as far as
needed.

   It is often used in the same way as '\vspace{\fill}', except that
'\vfill' ends the current paragraph, whereas '\vspace{\fill}' adds the
infinite vertical space below its line irrespective of the paragraph
structure.  In both cases that space will disappear at a page boundary;
to circumvent this see *note \vspace::.

   In this example the page is filled, so the top and bottom lines
contain the text 'Lost Dog!' and the third 'Lost Dog!' is exactly
halfway between them.

     \begin{document}
     Lost Dog!
     \vfill
     Lost Dog!
     \vfill
     Lost Dog!
     \end{document}

19.12 '\vspace{LENGTH}'
=======================

Synopsis, one of these two:

     \vspace{LENGTH}
     \vspace*{LENGTH}

   Add the vertical space LENGTH.  This can be negative or positive, and
is a rubber length (*note Lengths::).

   LaTeX removes the vertical space from '\vfill' at a page break, that
is, at the top or bottom of a page.  The starred version '\vspace*{..}'
causes the space to stay.

   In this example the two questions will be evenly spaced vertically on
the page, with at least one inch of space below each.

     \begin{document}
     1) Who put the bomp in the bomp bah bomp bah bomp?
     \vspace{1in plus 1fill}

     2) Who put the ram in the rama lama ding dong?
     \vspace{1in plus 1fill}
     \end{document}

20 Boxes
********

All the predefined length parameters (*note Predefined lengths::) can be
used in the arguments of the box-making commands.

20.1 '\mbox{TEXT}'
==================

The '\mbox' command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text
created by its argument.  The TEXT is not broken into lines, so it can
be used to prevent hyphenation.

20.2 '\fbox' and '\framebox'
============================

Synopses:

     \fbox{TEXT}
     \framebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT}

   The '\fbox' and '\framebox' commands are like '\mbox', except that
they put a frame around the outside of the box being created.

   In addition, the '\framebox' command allows for explicit
specification of the box width with the optional WIDTH argument (a
dimension), and positioning with the optional POSITION argument.

   Both commands produce a rule of thickness '\fboxrule' (default
'.4pt'), and leave a space of '\fboxsep' (default '3pt') between the
rule and the contents of the box.

   *Note \framebox (picture)::, for the '\framebox' command in the
'picture' environment.

20.3 'lrbox'
============

'\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox}'

   This is the environment form of '\sbox'.

   The text inside the environment is saved in the box 'cmd', which must
have been declared with '\newsavebox'.

20.4 '\makebox'
===============

Synopsis:

     \makebox[WIDTH][POSITION]{TEXT}

   The '\makebox' command creates a box just wide enough to contain the
TEXT specified.  The width of the box can be overridden by the optional
WIDTH argument.  The position of the text within the box is determined
by the optional POSITION argument, which may take the following values:

'c'
     Centered (default).
'l'
     Flush left.
'r'
     Flush right.
's'
     Stretch (justify) across entire WIDTH; TEXT must contain
     stretchable space for this to work.

   '\makebox' is also used within the 'picture' environment *note
\makebox (picture)::.

20.5 '\parbox'
==============

Synopsis:

     \parbox[POSITION][HEIGHT][INNER-POS]{WIDTH}{TEXT}

   The '\parbox' command produces a box whose contents are created in
'paragraph' mode.  It should be used to make a box small pieces of text,
with nothing fancy inside.  In particular, you shouldn't use any
paragraph-making environments inside a '\parbox' argument.  For larger
pieces of text, including ones containing a paragraph-making
environment, you should use a 'minipage' environment (*note minipage::).

   '\parbox' has two mandatory arguments:

WIDTH
     the width of the parbox;
TEXT
     the text that goes inside the parbox.

   The optional POSITION argument allows you to align either the top or
bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding text
(default is top).

   The optional HEIGHT argument overrides the natural height of the box.

   The INNER-POS argument controls the placement of the text inside the
box, as follows; if it is not specified, POSITION is used.

't'
     text is placed at the top of the box.
'c'
     text is centered in the box.
'b'
     text is placed at the bottom of the box.
's'
     stretch vertically; the text must contain vertically stretchable
     space for this to work.

20.6 '\raisebox'
================

Synopsis:

     \raisebox{distance}[HEIGHT][DEPTH]{text}

   The '\raisebox' command raises or lowers TEXT.  The first mandatory
argument specifies how high TEXT is to be raised (or lowered if it is a
negative amount).  TEXT itself is processed in LR mode.

   The optional arguments HEIGHT and DEPTH are dimensions.  If they are
specified, LaTeX treats TEXT as extending a certain distance above the
baseline (height) or below (depth), ignoring its natural height and
depth.

20.7 '\savebox'
===============

Synopsis:

     \savebox{\BOXCMD}[WIDTH][POS]{TEXT}

   This command typeset TEXT in a box just as with '\makebox' (*note
\makebox::), except that instead of printing the resulting box, it saves
it in the box labeled \BOXCMD, which must have been declared with
'\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::).

20.8 '\sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT}'
===========================

Synopsis:

     \sbox{\BOXCMD}{TEXT}

   '\sbox' types TEXT in a box just as with '\mbox' (*note \mbox::)
except that instead of the resulting box being included in the normal
output, it is saved in the box labeled \BOXCMD.  \BOXCMD must have been
previously declared with '\newsavebox' (*note \newsavebox::).

20.9 '\usebox{\BOXCMD}'
=======================

Synopsis:

     \usebox{\BOXCMD}

   '\usebox' produces the box most recently saved in the bin \BOXCMD by
a '\savebox' command (*note \savebox::).

21 Special insertions
*********************

LaTeX provides commands for inserting characters that have a special
meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type.

21.1 Reserved characters
========================

The following characters play a special role in LaTeX and are called
"reserved characters" or "special characters".

     # $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { }

   Whenever you write one of these characters into your file, LaTeX will
do something special.  If you simply want the character to be printed as
itself, include a '\' in front of the character.  For example, '\$' will
produce '$' in your output.

   One exception to this rule is '\' itself, because '\\' has its own
special (context-dependent) meaning.  A roman \ is produced by typing
'$\backslash$' in your file, and a typewriter '\' is produced by using
'\' in a verbatim command (*note verbatim::).

   Also, '\~' and '\^' place tilde and circumflex accents over the
following letter, as in o~ and o^ (*note Accents::); to get a standalone
'~' or '^', you can again use a verbatim command.

   Finally, you can access any character of the current font once you
know its number by using the '\symbol' command.  For example, the
visible space character used in the '\verb*' command has the code
decimal 32, so it can be typed as '\symbol{32}'.

   You can also specify octal numbers with ''' or hexadecimal numbers
with '"', so the previous example could also be written as
'\symbol{'40}' or '\symbol{"20}'.

21.2 Text symbols
=================

LaTeX provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols in
running text.  Some of these, especially the more obscure ones, are not
available in OT1; you may need to load the 'textcomp' package.

'\copyright'
'\textcopyright'
     The copyright symbol, (C).

'\dag'
     The dagger symbol (in text).

'\ddag'
     The double dagger symbol (in text).

'\LaTeX'
     The LaTeX logo.

'\LaTeXe'
     The LaTeX2e logo.

'\guillemotleft (<<)'
'\guillemotright (>>)'
'\guilsinglleft (<)'
'\guilsinglright (>)'
     Double and single angle quotation marks, commonly used in French:
     <<, >>, <, >.

'\ldots'
'\dots'
'\textellipsis'
     An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): '...'.  '\ldots' and
     '\dots' also work in math mode.

'\lq'
     Left (opening) quote: '.

'\P'
'\textparagraph'
     Paragraph sign (pilcrow).

'\pounds'
'\textsterling'
     English pounds sterling: #.

'\quotedblbase (,,)'
'\quotesinglbase (,)'
     Double and single quotation marks on the baseline: ,, and ,.

'\rq'
     Right (closing) quote: '.

'\S'
     Section symbol.

'\TeX'
     The TeX logo.

'\textasciicircum'
     ASCII circumflex: ^.

'\textasciitilde'
     ASCII tilde: ~.

'\textasteriskcentered'
     Centered asterisk: *.

'\textbackslash'
     Backslash: \.

'\textbar'
     Vertical bar: |.

'\textbardbl'
     Double vertical bar.

'\textbigcircle'
     Big circle symbol.

'\textbraceleft'
     Left brace: {.

'\textbraceright'
     Right brace: }.

'\textbullet'
     Bullet: *.

'\textcircled{LETTER}'
     LETTER in a circle, as in (R).

'\textcompwordmark'
'\textcapitalwordmark'
'\textascenderwordmark'
     Composite word mark (invisible).  The '\textcapital...' form has
     the cap height of the font, while the '\textascender...' form has
     the ascender height.

'\textdagger'
     Dagger: \dag.

'\textdaggerdbl'
     Double dagger: \ddag.

'\textdollar (or '$')'
     Dollar sign: $.

'\textemdash (or '---')'
     Em-dash: -- (for punctuation).

'\textendash (or '--')'
     En-dash: - (for ranges).

'\texteuro'
     The Euro symbol: Euro.

'\textexclamdown (or '!`')'
     Upside down exclamation point: !.

'\textgreater'
     Greater than: >.

'\textless'
     Less than: <.

'\textleftarrow'
     Left arrow.

'\textordfeminine'
'\textordmasculine'
     Feminine and masculine ordinal symbols: a, o.

'\textperiodcentered'
     Centered period: \cdot.

'\textquestiondown (or '?`')'
     Upside down question mark: ?.

'\textquotedblleft (or '``')'
     Double left quote: ".

'\textquotedblright (or ''')'
     Double right quote: ".

'\textquoteleft (or '`')'
     Single left quote: '.

'\textquoteright (or ''')'
     Single right quote: '.

'\textquotestraightbase'
'\textquotestraightdblbase'
     Single and double straight quotes on the baseline.

'\textregistered'
     Registered symbol: (R).

'\textrightarrow'
     Right arrow.

'\textthreequartersemdash'
     "Three-quarters" em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.

'\texttrademark'
     Trademark symbol: ^{\hbox{TM}}.

'\texttwelveudash'
     "Two-thirds" em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.

'\textunderscore'
     Underscore: _.

'\textvisiblespace'
     Visible space symbol.

21.3 Accents
============

LaTeX has wide support for many of the world's scripts and languages,
through the 'babel' package and related support.  This section does not
attempt to cover all that support.  It merely lists the core LaTeX
commands for creating accented characters.

   The '\capital...' commands produce alternative forms for use with
capital letters.  These are not available with OT1.

'\"'
'\capitaldieresis'
     Produces an umlaut (dieresis), as in o".

'\''
'\capitalacute'
     Produces an acute accent, as in o'.  In the 'tabbing' environment,
     pushes current column to the right of the previous column (*note
     tabbing::).

'\.'
     Produces a dot accent over the following, as in o..

'\='
'\capitalmacron'
     Produces a macron (overbar) accent over the following, as in o=.

'\^'
'\capitalcircumflex'
     Produces a circumflex (hat) accent over the following, as in o^.

'\`'
'\capitalgrave'
     Produces a grave accent over the following, as in o`.  In the
     'tabbing' environment, move following text to the right margin
     (*note tabbing::).

'\~'
'\capitaltilde'
     Produces a tilde accent over the following, as in n~.

'\b'
     Produces a bar accent under the following, as in o_.  See also
     '\underbar' hereinafter.

'\c'
'\capitalcedilla'
     Produces a cedilla accent under the following, as in c,.

'\d'
'\capitaldotaccent'
     Produces a dot accent under the following, as in .o.

'\H'
'\capitalhungarumlaut'
     Produces a long Hungarian umlaut accent over the following, as in
     o''.

'\i'
     Produces a dotless i, as in 'i'.

'\j'
     Produces a dotless j, as in 'j'.

'\k'
'\capitalogonek'
     Produces a letter with ogonek, as in 'o;'.  Not available in the
     OT1 encoding.

'\r'
'\capitalring'
     Produces a ring accent, as in 'o*'.

'\t'
'\capitaltie'
'\newtie'
'\capitalnewtie'
     Produces a tie-after accent, as in 'oo['.  The '\newtie' form is
     centered in its box.

'\u'
'\capitalbreve'
     Produces a breve accent, as in 'o('.

'\underbar'
     Not exactly an accent, this produces a bar under the argument text.
     The argument is always processed in horizontal mode.  The bar is
     always a fixed position under the baseline, thus crossing through
     descenders.  See also '\underline' in *note Math miscellany::.  See
     also '\b' above.

'\v'
'\capitalcaron'
     Produces a ha'c<ek (check, caron) accent, as in 'o<'.

21.4 Non-English characters
===========================

Here are the basic LaTeX commands for inserting characters commonly used
in languages other than English.

'\aa'
'\AA'
     aa and AA.

'\ae'
'\AE'
     ae and AE.

'\dh'
'\DH'
     Icelandic letter eth: d and D.

'\dj'
'\DJ'
     Crossed d and D, a.k.a. capital and small letter d with stroke.

'\ij'
'\IJ'
     ij and IJ (except somewhat closer together than appears here).

'\l'
'\L'
     /l and /L.

'\ng'
'\NG'
     Latin letter eng, also used in phonetics.

'\o'
'\O'
     /o and /O.

'\oe'
'\OE'
     oe and OE.

'\ss'
'\SS'
     ss and SS.

'\th'
'\TH'
     Icelandic letter thorn: th and TH.

21.5 '\rule'
============

Synopsis:

     \rule[RAISE]{WIDTH}{THICKNESS}

   The '\rule' command produces "rules", that is, lines or rectangles.
The arguments are:

RAISE
     How high to raise the rule (optional).

WIDTH
     The length of the rule (mandatory).

THICKNESS
     The thickness of the rule (mandatory).

21.6 '\today'
=============

The '\today' command produces today's date, in the format 'MONTH DD,
YYYY'; for example, 'July 4, 1976'.  It uses the predefined counters
'\day', '\month', and '\year' (*note \day \month \year::) to do this.
It is not updated as the program runs.

   The 'datetime' package, among others, can produce a wide variety of
other date formats.

22 Splitting the input
**********************

A large document requires a lot of input.  Rather than putting the whole
input in a single large file, it's more efficient to split it into
several smaller ones.  Regardless of how many separate files you use,
there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type
when you run LaTeX.

   *Note filecontents::, for an environment that allows bundling an
external file to be created with the main document.

22.1 '\include'
===============

Synopsis:

     \include{FILE}

   If no '\includeonly' command is present, the '\include' command
executes '\clearpage' to start a new page (*note \clearpage::), then
reads FILE, then does another '\clearpage'.

   Given an '\includeonly' command, the '\include' actions are only run
if FILE is listed as an argument to '\includeonly'.  See the next
section.

   The '\include' command may not appear in the preamble or in a file
read by another '\include' command.

22.2 \'includeonly'
===================

Synopsis:

     \includeonly{FILE1,FILE2,...}

   The '\includeonly' command controls which files will be read by
subsequent '\include' commands.  The list of filenames is
comma-separated.  Each FILE must exactly match a filename specified in a
'\include' command for the selection to be effective.

   This command can only appear in the preamble.

22.3 '\input'
=============

Synopsis:

     \input{FILE}

   The '\input' command causes the specified FILE to be read and
processed, as if its contents had been inserted in the current file at
that point.

   If FILE does not end in '.tex' (e.g., 'foo' or 'foo.bar'), it is
first tried with that extension ('foo.tex' or 'foo.bar.tex').  If that
is not found, the original FILE is tried ('foo' or 'foo.bar').

23 Front/back matter
********************

23.1 Tables of contents
=======================

A table of contents is produced with the '\tableofcontents' command.
You put the command right where you want the table of contents to go;
LaTeX does the rest for you.  A previous run must have generated a
'.toc' file.

   The '\tableofcontents' command produces a heading, but it does not
automatically start a new page.  If you want a new page after the table
of contents, write a '\newpage' command after the '\tableofcontents'
command.

   The analogous commands '\listoffigures' and '\listoftables' produce a
list of figures and a list of tables (from '.lof' and '.lot' files),
respectively.  Everything works exactly the same as for the table of
contents.

   The command '\nofiles' overrides these commands, and _prevents_ any
of these lists from being generated.

23.1.1 '\addcontentsline'
-------------------------

The '\addcontentsline'{EXT}{UNIT}{TEXT} command adds an entry to the
specified list or table where:

EXT
     The extension of the file on which information is to be written,
     typically one of: 'toc' (table of contents), 'lof' (list of
     figures), or 'lot' (list of tables).

UNIT
     The name of the sectional unit being added, typically one of the
     following, matching the value of the EXT argument:

     'toc'
          The name of the sectional unit: 'part', 'chapter', 'section',
          'subsection', 'subsubsection'.
     'lof'
          For the list of figures.
     'lot'
          For the list of tables.

ENTRY
     The text of the entry.

   What is written to the '.EXT' file is the command
'\contentsline{UNIT}{NAME}'.

23.1.2 '\addtocontents'
-----------------------

The '\addtocontents'{EXT}{TEXT} command adds text (or formatting
commands) directly to the '.EXT' file that generates the table of
contents or lists of figures or tables.

EXT
     The extension of the file on which information is to be written,
     typically one of: 'toc' (table of contents), 'lof' (list of
     figures), or 'lot' (list of tables).

TEXT
     The text to be written.

23.2 Glossaries
===============

The command '\makeglossary' enables creating glossaries.

   The command '\glossary{TEXT}' writes a glossary entry for TEXT to an
auxiliary file with the '.glo' extension.

   Specifically, what gets written is the command
'\glossaryentry{TEXT}{PAGENO}', where PAGENO is the current '\thepage'
value.

   The 'glossary' package on CTAN provides support for fancier
glossaries.

23.3 Indexes
============

The command '\makeindex' enables creating indexes.  Put this in the
preamble.

   The command '\index{TEXT}' writes an index entry for TEXT to an
auxiliary file with the '.idx' extension.

   Specifically, what gets written is the command
'\indexentry{TEXT}{PAGENO}', where PAGENO is the current '\thepage'
value.

   To generate a index entry for 'bar' that says 'See foo', use a
vertical bar: '\index{bar|see{foo}}'.  Use 'seealso' instead of 'see' to
make a 'See also' entry.

   The text 'See' is defined by the macro '\seename', and 'See also' by
the macro '\alsoname'.  These can be redefined for other languages.

   The generated '.idx' file is then sorted with an external command,
usually either 'makeindex' (<http://mirror.ctan.org/indexing/makeindex>)
or (the multi-lingual) 'xindy' (<http://xindy.sourceforge.net>).  This
results in a '.ind' file, which can then be read to typeset the index.

   The index is usually generated with the '\printindex' command.  This
is defined in the 'makeidx' package, so '\usepackage{makeidx}' needs to
be in the preamble.

   The rubber length '\indexspace' is inserted before each new letter in
the printed index; its default value is '10pt plus5pt minus3pt'.

   The 'showidx' package causes each index entries to be shown in the
margin on the page where the entry appears.  This can help in preparing
the index.

   The 'multind' package supports multiple indexes.  See also the TeX
FAQ entry on this topic,
<http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=multind>.

24 Letters
**********

Synopsis:

     \documentclass{letter}
     \address{SENDER ADDRESS}
     \signature{SENDER NAME}
     \begin{document}
     \begin{letter}{RECIPIENT ADDRESS}
     \opening{SALUTATION}
       LETTER BODY
     \closing{CLOSING TEXT}
     \end{letter}
       ...  more letters ...
     \end{document}

   Produce one or more letters.

   Each letter is in a separate 'letter' environment, whose argument
RECIPIENT ADDRESS often contains multiple lines separated with a double
backslash ('\\').  For example, you might have:

      \begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith \\
           2345 Princess St. \\
           Edinburgh, EH1 1AA}
        ...
      \end{letter}

   The start of the 'letter' environment resets the page number to 1,
and the footnote number to 1 also.

   The SENDER ADDRESS and SENDER NAME are common to all of the letters,
whether there is one or more, so these are best put in the preamble.  As
with the recipient address, often SENDER ADDRESS contains multiple lines
separated by a double backslash ('\\').  LaTeX will put the SENDER NAME
under the closing, after a vertical space for the traditional
hand-written signature; it also can contain multiple lines.

   Each letter environment begins with a required '\opening' command
such as '\opening{Dear Madam or Sir:}'.  The LETTER BODY text is
ordinary LaTeX so it can contain everything from from enumerated lists
to displayed math, except that commands such as '\chapter' that make no
sense in a letter are turned off.  Each letter environment typically
ends with a '\closing' command such as '\closing{Yours,}'.

   Additional material may come after the '\closing'.  You can say who
is receiving a copy of the letter with a command like '\cc{the Boss \\
the Boss's Boss}'.  There's a similar '\encl' command for a list of
enclosures.  And, you can add a postscript with '\ps'.

   LaTeX's default is to indent the signature and the '\closing' above
it by a length of '\longindentation'.  By default this is
'0.5\textwidth'.  To make them flush left, put
'\setlength{\longindentation}{0em}' in your preamble.

   To set a fixed date use something like
'\renewcommand{\today}{2015-Oct-12}'.  If put in your preamble then it
will apply to all the letters.

   This example shows only one 'letter' environment.  The three lines
marked as optional are typically omitted.

     \documentclass{letter}
     \address{Sender's street \\ Sender's town}
     \signature{Sender's name \\ Sender's title}
     % optional: \location{Mailbox 13}
     % optional: \telephone{(102) 555-0101}
     \begin{document}
     \begin{letter}{Recipient's name \\ Recipient's address}
     \opening{Sir:}
     % optional: \thispagestyle{firstpage}
     I am not interested in entering a business arrangement with you.
     \closing{Your most humble, etc.,}
     \end{letter}
     \end{document}

   These commands are used with the 'letter' class.

24.1 '\address'
===============

Synopsis:

     \address{SENDERS ADDRESS}

   Specifies the return address as it appears on the letter and on the
envelope.  Separate multiple lines in SENDERS ADDRESS with a double
backslash '\\'.

   Because it can apply to multiple letters this declaration is often
put in the preamble.  However, it can go anywhere, including inside an
individual 'letter' environment.

   This command is optional: without the '\address' declaration the
letter is formatted with some blank space on top, for copying onto
pre-printed letterhead paper.  (*Note Overview::, for details on your
local implementation.)  With the '\address' declaration, it is formatted
as a personal letter.

   Here is an example.

     \address{Stephen Maturin \\
              The Grapes of the Savoy}

24.2 '\cc'
==========

Synopsis:

     \cc{FIRST NAME \\
         .. }

   Produce a list of names to which copies of the letter were sent.
This command is optional.  If it appears then typically it comes after
'\closing'.  Separate multiple lines with a double backslash '\\'.

     \cc{President \\
         Vice President}

24.3 '\closing'
===============

Synopsis:

     \closing{text}

   Usually at the end of a letter, above the handwritten signature,
there is a '\closing' (although this command is optional).  For example,

     \closing{Regards,}

24.4 '\encl'
============

Synopsis:

     \encl{FIRST ENCLOSED OBJECT \\
           .. }

   Produce a list of things included with the letter.  This command is
optional; when it is used, it typically is put after '\closing'.
Separate multiple lines with a double backslash '\\'.

     \encl{License \\
            Passport }

24.5 '\location'
================

Synopsis:

     \location{TEXT}

   The TEXT appears centered at the bottom of the each page.  It only
appears if the page style is 'firstpage'.

24.6 '\makelabels'
==================

Synopsis:

     \makelabels

   Create a sheet of address labels from the recipient addresses, one
for each letter.  This sheet will be output before the letters, with the
idea that you can copy it to a sheet of peel-off labels.  This command
goes in the preamble.

   Customize the labels by redefining the commands '\startlabels',
'\mlabel', and '\returnaddress' in the preamble.  The command
'\startlabels' sets the width, height, number of columns, etc., of the
page onto which the labels are printed.  The command '\mlabel{SENDER
ADDRESS}{RECIPIENT ADDRESS}' produces the two labels (or one, if you
choose to ignore the SENDER ADDRESS).  The SENDER ADDRESS is the value
returned by the macro '\returnaddress' while RECIPIENT ADDRESS is the
value passed in the argument to the 'letter' environment.  By default
'\mlabel' ignores the first argument, the SENDER ADDRESS.

24.7 '\name'
============

Synopsis:

     \name{NAME}

   Sender's name, used for printing on the envelope together with the
return address.

24.8 '\opening'
===============

Synopsis:

     \opening{TEXT}

   This command is required.  It starts a letter, following the
'\begin{letter}{..}'.  The mandatory argument TEXT is the text that
starts your letter.  For instance:

     \opening{Dear John:}

24.9 '\ps'
==========

Synopsis:

     \ps{TEXT}

   Add a postscript.  This command is optional and usually is used after
'\closing'.

     \ps{P.S.  After you have read this letter, burn it. Or eat it.}

24.10 '\signature'
==================

Synopsis:

     \signature{FIRST LINE \\
                 .. }

   The sender's name.  This command is optional, although its inclusion
is usual.

   The argument text appears at the end of the letter, after the closing
and after a vertical space for the traditional hand-written signature.
Separate multiple lines with a double backslash '\\'.  For example:

     \signature{J Fred Muggs \\
                White House}

   LaTeX's default for the vertical space from the '\closing' text down
to the '\signature' text is '6\medskipamount', which is six times 0.7em.

   This command is usually in the preamble, to apply to all the letters
in the document.  To have it apply to one letter only, put it inside a
'letter' environment and before the '\closing'.

   You can include a graphic in the signature, for instance with
'\signature{\vspace{-6\medskipamount}\includegraphics{sig.png}\\ My
name}' (this requires writing '\usepackage{graphicx}' in the preamble).

24.11 '\telephone'
==================

Synopsis:

     \telephone{NUMBER}

   The sender's telephone number.  This is typically in the preamble,
where it applies to all letters.  This only appears if the 'firstpage'
pagestyle is selected.  If so, it appears on the lower right of the
page.

25 Terminal input/output
************************

25.1 '\typein[CMD]{MSG}'
========================

Synopsis:

     \typein[\CMD]{MSG}

   '\typein' prints MSG on the terminal and causes LaTeX to stop and
wait for you to type a line of input, ending with return.  If the
optional \CMD argument is omitted, the typed input is processed as if it
had been included in the input file in place of the '\typein' command.
If the \CMD argument is present, it must be a command name.  This
command name is then defined or redefined to be the typed input.

25.2 '\typeout{MSG}'
====================

Synopsis:

     \typeout{MSG}

   Prints 'msg' on the terminal and in the 'log' file.  Commands in
'msg' that are defined with '\newcommand' or '\renewcommand' (among
others) are replaced by their definitions before being printed.

   LaTeX's usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space
and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to 'msg'.  A '\space'
command in 'msg' causes a single space to be printed, independent of
surrounding spaces.  A '^^J' in 'msg' prints a newline.

26 Command line
***************

The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; TeX
uses '.tex' as a default file extension.  If you omit the input file
entirely, TeX accepts input from the terminal.  You can also specify
arbitrary LaTeX input by starting with a backslash.  For example, this
processes 'foo.tex' without pausing after every error:

     latex '\nonstopmode\input foo.tex'

   With many, but not all, implementations, command-line options can
also be specified in the usual Unix way, starting with '-' or '--'.  For
a list of those options, try 'latex --help'.

   If LaTeX stops in the middle of the document and gives you a '*'
prompt, it is waiting for input.  You can type '\stop' (and return) and
it will prematurely end the document.

   *Note TeX engines::, for other system commands invoking LaTeX.

Appendix A Document templates
*****************************

Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will
be useful.  Additional template resources are listed at
<http://tug.org/interest.html#latextemplates>.

A.1 'beamer' template
=====================

The 'beamer' class creates presentation slides.  It has a vast array of
features, but here is a basic template:

\documentclass{beamer}

\title{Beamer Class template}
\author{Alex Author}
\date{July 31, 2007}

\begin{document}

\maketitle

% without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors.
\begin{frame}[fragile]
 \frametitle{First Slide}

\begin{verbatim}
  This is \verbatim!
\end{verbatim}

\end{frame}

\end{document}

   One web resource for this:
<http://robjhyndman.com/hyndsight/beamer/>.

A.2 'book' template
===================

\documentclass{book}
\title{Book Class Template}
\author{Alex Author}

\begin{document}
\maketitle

\chapter{First}
Some text.

\chapter{Second}
Some other text.

\section{A subtopic}
The end.
\end{document}

A.3 'tugboat' template
======================

'TUGboat' is the journal of the TeX Users Group,
<http://tug.org/TUGboat>.

\documentclass{ltugboat}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage{ifpdf}
\ifpdf
\usepackage[breaklinks,hidelinks]{hyperref}
\else
\usepackage{url}
\fi

\title{Example \TUB\ article}

% repeat info for each author.
\author{First Last}
\address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country}
\netaddress{user (at) example dot org}
\personalURL{http://example.org/~user/}

\begin{document}

\maketitle

\begin{abstract}
This is an example article for \TUB{}.
\end{abstract}

\section{Introduction}

This is an example article for \TUB, from
\url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}.

We recommend the \texttt{graphicx} package for image inclusions, and the
\texttt{hyperref} package for active urls in the \acro{PDF} output.
Nowadays \TUB\ is produced using \acro{PDF} files exclusively.

The \texttt{ltugboat} class provides these abbreviations and many more:

% verbatim blocks are often better in \small
\begin{verbatim}[\small]
\AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW
\BibTeX \CTAN \DTD \HTML
\ISBN \ISSN \LaTeXe
\Mc \mf \MFB \mtex \PCTeX \pcTeX
\PiC \PiCTeX \plain \POBox \PS
\SC \SGML \SliTeX \TANGLE \TB \TP
\TUB \TUG \tug
\UG \UNIX \VAX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE

\Dash \dash \vellipsis \bull \cents \Dag
\careof \thinskip

\acro{FRED} -> {\small[er] fred}  % please use!
\cs{fred}   -> \fred
\env{fred}  -> \begin{fred}
\meta{fred} -> <fred>
\nth{n}     -> 1st, 2nd, ...
\sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4
\booktitle{Book of Fred}
\end{verbatim}

For more information, see the ltubguid document at:
\url{http://mirror.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/tugboat}
(we recommend using \verb|mirror.ctan.org| for \CTAN\ references).

Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions.

\bibliographystyle{plain}  % we recommend the plain bibliography style
\nocite{book-minimal}      % just making the bibliography non-empty
\bibliography{xampl}       % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX

\makesignature
\end{document}

Concept Index
*************

* Menu:

* '*' prompt:                            Command line.       (line 7136)
* '*'-form of sectioning commands:       Sectioning.         (line 1422)
* '.glo' file:                           Glossaries.         (line 6780)
* '.idx' file:                           Indexes.            (line 6796)
* '.ind' file:                           Indexes.            (line 6810)
* 'see' and 'see also' index entries:    Indexes.            (line 6803)
* abstracts:                             abstract.           (line 1535)
* accents:                               Accents.            (line 6475)
* accents, mathematical:                 Math accents.       (line 5541)
* accessing any character of a font:     Reserved characters.
                                                             (line 6286)
* acute accent:                          Accents.            (line 6489)
* acute accent, math:                    Math accents.       (line 5546)
* additional packages, loading:          Document class options.
                                                             (line  633)
* ae ligature:                           Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6580)
* align environment, from 'amsmath':     eqnarray.           (line 1848)
* aligning equations:                    eqnarray.           (line 1848)
* alignment via tabbing:                 tabbing.            (line 2585)
* amsmath package, replacing 'eqnarray': eqnarray.           (line 1848)
* appendix, creating:                    Sectioning.         (line 1428)
* aring:                                 Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6576)
* arrays, math:                          array.              (line 1547)
* arrow, left, in text:                  Text symbols.       (line 6423)
* arrow, right, in text:                 Text symbols.       (line 6455)
* ascender height:                       Text symbols.       (line 6391)
* ASCII circumflex, in text:             Text symbols.       (line 6356)
* ASCII tilde, in text:                  Text symbols.       (line 6359)
* asterisk, centered, in text:           Text symbols.       (line 6362)
* at clause, in font definitions:        \newfont.           (line 4033)
* author, for titlepage:                 \maketitle.         (line 5737)
* auxiliary file:                        Output files.       (line  374)
* 'babel' package:                       Accents.            (line 6475)
* backslash, in text:                    Text symbols.       (line 6365)
* bar, double vertical, in text:         Text symbols.       (line 6371)
* bar, vertical, in text:                Text symbols.       (line 6368)
* bar-over accent:                       Accents.            (line 6498)
* bar-over accent, math:                 Math accents.       (line 5549)
* bar-under accent:                      Accents.            (line 6515)
* basics of LaTeX:                       Overview.           (line  293)
* 'beamer' template and class:           beamer template.    (line 7152)
* beginning of document hook:            \AtBeginDocument.   (line 1757)
* bibliography format, open:             Document class options.
                                                             (line  600)
* bibliography, creating (automatically): Using BibTeX.      (line 3105)
* bibliography, creating (manually):     thebibliography.    (line 3040)
* bibTeX, using:                         Using BibTeX.       (line 3105)
* big circle symbols, in text:           Text symbols.       (line 6374)
* Big point:                             Units of length.    (line 4304)
* black boxes, omitting:                 Document class options.
                                                             (line  586)
* bold font:                             Font styles.        (line  719)
* bold math:                             Font styles.        (line  778)
* bold typewriter, avoiding:             description.        (line 1688)
* box, allocating new:                   \newsavebox.        (line 3785)
* boxes:                                 Boxes.              (line 6101)
* brace, left, in text:                  Text symbols.       (line 6377)
* brace, right, in text:                 Text symbols.       (line 6380)
* breaking lines:                        Line breaking.      (line 3225)
* breaking pages:                        Page breaking.      (line 3361)
* breve accent:                          Accents.            (line 6555)
* breve accent, math:                    Math accents.       (line 5552)
* bug reporting:                         About this document.
                                                             (line  250)
* bullet symbol:                         Math symbols.       (line 4658)
* bullet, in text:                       Text symbols.       (line 6383)
* bulleted lists:                        itemize.            (line 2078)
* calligraphic letters for math:         Font styles.        (line  722)
* cap height:                            Text symbols.       (line 6391)
* caron accent:                          Accents.            (line 6566)
* cc list, in letters:                   \cc.                (line 6940)
* cedilla accent:                        Accents.            (line 6520)
* centered asterisk, in text:            Text symbols.       (line 6362)
* centered equations:                    Document class options.
                                                             (line  590)
* centered period, in text:              Text symbols.       (line 6430)
* centering text, declaration for:       \centering.         (line 1639)
* centering text, environment for:       center.             (line 1605)
* Centimeter:                            Units of length.    (line 4308)
* characters, accented:                  Accents.            (line 6475)
* characters, non-English:               Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6571)
* characters, reserved:                  Reserved characters.
                                                             (line 6267)
* check accent:                          Accents.            (line 6566)
* check accent, math:                    Math accents.       (line 5555)
* Cicero:                                Units of length.    (line 4317)
* circle symbol, big, in text:           Text symbols.       (line 6374)
* circled letter, in text:               Text symbols.       (line 6386)
* circumflex accent:                     Accents.            (line 6502)
* circumflex accent, math:               Math accents.       (line 5567)
* circumflex, ASCII, in text:            Text symbols.       (line 6356)
* class options:                         Document class options.
                                                             (line  544)
* classes of documents:                  Document classes.   (line  510)
* closing letters:                       \closing.           (line 6955)
* closing quote:                         Text symbols.       (line 6347)
* code, typesetting:                     verbatim.           (line 3172)
* command line:                          Command line.       (line 7124)
* command syntax:                        LaTeX command syntax.
                                                             (line  444)
* commands, defining new ones:           \newcommand & \renewcommand.
                                                             (line 3649)
* commands, defining new ones <1>:       \providecommand.    (line 3734)
* commands, redefining:                  \newcommand & \renewcommand.
                                                             (line 3649)
* composite word mark, in text:          Text symbols.       (line 6391)
* computer programs, typesetting:        verbatim.           (line 3172)
* contents file:                         Output files.       (line  384)
* copyright symbol:                      Text symbols.       (line 6304)
* counters, a list of:                   Counters.           (line 4100)
* counters, defining new:                \newcounter.        (line 3749)
* counters, getting value of:            \value.             (line 4184)
* counters, printing:                    \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol.
                                                             (line 4124)
* counters, setting:                     \setcounter.        (line 4213)
* creating pictures:                     picture.            (line 2282)
* creating tables:                       table.              (line 2676)
* credit footnote:                       \maketitle.         (line 5747)
* cross references:                      Cross references.   (line 1449)
* cross references, resolving:           Output files.       (line  374)
* cross referencing with page number:    \pageref.           (line 1503)
* cross referencing, symbolic:           \ref.               (line 1513)
* currency, dollar:                      Text symbols.       (line 6402)
* currency, euro:                        Text symbols.       (line 6411)
* dagger, double, in text:               Text symbols.       (line 6399)
* dagger, in text:                       Text symbols.       (line 6307)
* dagger, in text <1>:                   Text symbols.       (line 6396)
* date, for titlepage:                   \maketitle.         (line 5743)
* date, today's:                         \today.             (line 6640)
* 'datetime' package:                    \today.             (line 6645)
* defining a new command:                \newcommand & \renewcommand.
                                                             (line 3649)
* defining a new command <1>:            \providecommand.    (line 3734)
* defining new environments:             \newenvironment & \renewenvironment.
                                                             (line 3800)
* defining new fonts:                    \newfont.           (line 4016)
* defining new theorems:                 \newtheorem.        (line 3904)
* definitions:                           Definitions.        (line 3644)
* description lists, creating:           description.        (line 1671)
* design size, in font definitions:      \newfont.           (line 4033)
* Didot point:                           Units of length.    (line 4314)
* dieresis accent:                       Accents.            (line 6485)
* discretionary multiplication:          Math miscellany.    (line 5637)
* displaying quoted text with paragraph indentation: quotation and quote.
                                                             (line 2549)
* displaying quoted text without paragraph indentation: quotation and quote.
                                                             (line 2549)
* document class options:                Document class options.
                                                             (line  544)
* document class, defined:               Starting and ending.
                                                             (line  327)
* document classes:                      Document classes.   (line  510)
* document templates:                    Document templates. (line 7145)
* dollar sign:                           Text symbols.       (line 6402)
* dot accent:                            Accents.            (line 6494)
* dot over accent, math:                 Math accents.       (line 5561)
* dot-over accent:                       Accents.            (line 6494)
* dot-under accent:                      Accents.            (line 6524)
* dotless i:                             Accents.            (line 6532)
* dotless i, math:                       Math accents.       (line 5570)
* dotless j:                             Accents.            (line 6535)
* dotless j, math:                       Math accents.       (line 5573)
* double angle quotation marks:          Text symbols.       (line 6322)
* double dagger, in text:                Text symbols.       (line 6310)
* double dagger, in text <1>:            Text symbols.       (line 6399)
* double dot accent, math:               Math accents.       (line 5558)
* double guillemets:                     Text symbols.       (line 6322)
* double left quote:                     Text symbols.       (line 6436)
* double low-9 quotation mark:           Text symbols.       (line 6344)
* double quote, straight base:           Text symbols.       (line 6449)
* double right quote:                    Text symbols.       (line 6439)
* double spacing:                        Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  930)
* double vertical bar, in text:          Text symbols.       (line 6371)
* e-dash:                                Text symbols.       (line 6408)
* e-TeX:                                 TeX engines.        (line  399)
* ellipsis:                              Text symbols.       (line 6328)
* em:                                    Units of length.    (line 4322)
* em-dash:                               Text symbols.       (line 6405)
* em-dash, three-quarters:               Text symbols.       (line 6458)
* em-dash, two-thirds:                   Text symbols.       (line 6464)
* emphasis:                              Font styles.        (line  707)
* enclosure list:                        \encl.              (line 6967)
* end of document hook:                  \AtEndDocument.     (line 1770)
* ending and starting:                   Starting and ending.
                                                             (line  319)
* engines, TeX:                          TeX engines.        (line  393)
* enlarge current page:                  \enlargethispage.   (line 3390)
* environment:                           Starting and ending.
                                                             (line  335)
* environment, theorem-like:             \newtheorem.        (line 3904)
* environments:                          Environments.       (line 1525)
* environments, defining:                \newenvironment & \renewenvironment.
                                                             (line 3800)
* equation number, cross referencing:    \ref.               (line 1513)
* equation numbers, left vs. right:      Document class options.
                                                             (line  596)
* equation numbers, omitting:            eqnarray.           (line 1883)
* equations, aligning:                   eqnarray.           (line 1848)
* equations, environment for:            equation.           (line 1904)
* equations, flush left vs. centered:    Document class options.
                                                             (line  590)
* es-zet German letter:                  Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6612)
* eth, Icelandic letter:                 Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6584)
* euro symbol:                           Text symbols.       (line 6411)
* ex:                                    Units of length.    (line 4322)
* exclamation point, upside-down:        Text symbols.       (line 6414)
* exponent:                              Subscripts & superscripts.
                                                             (line 4521)
* external files, writing:               filecontents.       (line 1975)
* families, of fonts:                    Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  836)
* feminine ordinal symbol:               Text symbols.       (line 6427)
* figure number, cross referencing:      \ref.               (line 1513)
* figures, footnotes in:                 minipage.           (line 2269)
* figures, inserting:                    figure.             (line 1922)
* fixed-width font:                      Font styles.        (line  740)
* 'float' package:                       Floats.             (line 1293)
* float page:                            Floats.             (line 1299)
* flush left equations:                  Document class options.
                                                             (line  590)
* flushing floats and starting a page:   \clearpage.         (line 3377)
* font catalogue:                        Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  836)
* font commands, low-level:              Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  822)
* font size:                             Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  914)
* font sizes:                            Font sizes.         (line  796)
* font styles:                           Font styles.        (line  654)
* fonts:                                 Fonts.              (line  648)
* fonts, new commands for:               \newfont.           (line 4016)
* footer style:                          \pagestyle.         (line 5782)
* footer, parameters for:                Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1115)
* footnote number, cross referencing:    \ref.               (line 1513)
* footnote parameters:                   Footnote parameters.
                                                             (line 3628)
* footnotes in figures:                  minipage.           (line 2269)
* footnotes, creating:                   Footnotes.          (line 3423)
* Footnotes, in a minipage:              \footnote.          (line 3470)
* Footnotes, in a table:                 Footnotes in a table.
                                                             (line 3524)
* footnotes, symbols instead of numbers: \footnote.          (line 3458)
* formulas, environment for:             equation.           (line 1904)
* formulas, math:                        Math formulas.      (line 4484)
* forward references, resolving:         Output files.       (line  374)
* fragile commands:                      \protect.           (line 4051)
* French quotation marks:                Text symbols.       (line 6322)
* functions, math:                       Math functions.     (line 5433)
* 'geometry' package:                    Document class options.
                                                             (line  575)
* global options:                        Document class options.
                                                             (line  544)
* global options <1>:                    Document class options.
                                                             (line  641)
* glossaries:                            Glossaries.         (line 6778)
* glossary package:                      Glossaries.         (line 6787)
* glue register, plain TeX:              \newlength.         (line 3770)
* graphics packages:                     \line.              (line 2440)
* grave accent:                          Accents.            (line 6506)
* grave accent, math:                    Math accents.       (line 5564)
* greater than symbol, in text:          Text symbols.       (line 6417)
* greek letters:                         Math symbols.       (line 4554)
* ha'c<ek accent, math:                  Math accents.       (line 5555)
* hacek accent:                          Accents.            (line 6566)
* hat accent:                            Accents.            (line 6502)
* hat accent, math:                      Math accents.       (line 5567)
* header style:                          \pagestyle.         (line 5782)
* header, parameters for:                Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1115)
* hello, world:                          Starting and ending.
                                                             (line  319)
* here, putting floats:                  Floats.             (line 1293)
* hungarian umlaut accent:               Accents.            (line 6528)
* hyphenation, defining:                 \hyphenation.       (line 3328)
* hyphenation, forcing:                  \- (hyphenation).   (line 3298)
* hyphenation, preventing:               \mbox.              (line 6107)
* Icelandic eth:                         Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6584)
* Icelandic thorn:                       Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6616)
* ij letter, Dutch:                      Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6592)
* implementations of TeX:                TeX engines.        (line  393)
* in-line formulas:                      math.               (line 2242)
* indent, forcing:                       \indent.            (line 4402)
* indent, suppressing:                   \noindent.          (line 4413)
* indentation of paragraphs, in minipage: minipage.          (line 2265)
* index entries, 'see' and 'see also':   Indexes.            (line 6803)
* indexes:                               Indexes.            (line 6793)
* infinite horizontal stretch:           \hfill.             (line 5857)
* infinite vertical stretch:             \vfill.             (line 6049)
* input file:                            Splitting the input.
                                                             (line 6651)
* input/output, to terminal:             Terminal input/output.
                                                             (line 7091)
* inserting figures:                     figure.             (line 1922)
* insertions of special characters:      Special insertions. (line 6261)
* italic correction:                     \/.                 (line 5958)
* italic font:                           Font styles.        (line  725)
* justification, ragged left:            \raggedleft.        (line 2065)
* justification, ragged right:           \raggedright.       (line 2039)
* Knuth, Donald E.:                      Overview.           (line  293)
* labelled lists, creating:              description.        (line 1671)
* Lamport TeX:                           Overview.           (line  311)
* Lamport, Leslie:                       Overview.           (line  293)
* landscape orientation:                 Document class options.
                                                             (line  593)
* LaTeX logo:                            Text symbols.       (line 6313)
* LaTeX overview:                        Overview.           (line  293)
* LaTeX Project team:                    About this document.
                                                             (line  261)
* LaTeX vs. LaTeX2e:                     About this document.
                                                             (line  257)
* LaTeX2e logo:                          Text symbols.       (line 6316)
* layout commands:                       Layout.             (line  960)
* layout, page parameters for:           Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1115)
* left angle quotation marks:            Text symbols.       (line 6322)
* left arrow, in text:                   Text symbols.       (line 6423)
* left brace, in text:                   Text symbols.       (line 6377)
* left quote:                            Text symbols.       (line 6332)
* left quote, double:                    Text symbols.       (line 6436)
* left quote, single:                    Text symbols.       (line 6442)
* left-hand equation numbers:            Document class options.
                                                             (line  596)
* left-justifying text:                  \raggedright.       (line 2039)
* left-justifying text, environment for: flushleft.          (line 2026)
* left-to-right mode:                    Modes.              (line 5686)
* lengths, adding to:                    \addtolength.       (line 4347)
* lengths, allocating new:               \newlength.         (line 3770)
* lengths, defining and using:           Lengths.            (line 4262)
* lengths, predefined:                   Predefined lengths. (line 4375)
* lengths, setting:                      \setlength.         (line 4340)
* less than symbol, in text:             Text symbols.       (line 6420)
* letters, accented:                     Accents.            (line 6475)
* letters, ending:                       \closing.           (line 6955)
* letters, non-English:                  Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6571)
* letters, starting:                     \opening.           (line 7025)
* letters, writing:                      Letters.            (line 6833)
* line break, forcing:                   \\.                 (line 3236)
* line breaking:                         Line breaking.      (line 3225)
* line breaks, forcing:                  \linebreak & \nolinebreak.
                                                             (line 3344)
* line breaks, preventing:               \linebreak & \nolinebreak.
                                                             (line 3344)
* lines in tables:                       tabular.            (line 2718)
* lining numerals:                       Font styles.        (line  782)
* lining text up in tables:              tabular.            (line 2718)
* lining text up using tab stops:        tabbing.            (line 2585)
* list items, specifying counter:        \usecounter.        (line 4158)
* list of figures file:                  Output files.       (line  384)
* list of tables file:                   Output files.       (line  384)
* lists of items:                        itemize.            (line 2078)
* lists of items, generic:               list.               (line 2185)
* lists of items, numbered:              enumerate.          (line 1786)
* loading additional packages:           Document class options.
                                                             (line  633)
* log file:                              Output files.       (line  369)
* logo, LaTeX:                           Text symbols.       (line 6313)
* logo, LaTeX2e:                         Text symbols.       (line 6316)
* logo, TeX:                             Text symbols.       (line 6353)
* low-9 quotation marks, single and double: Text symbols.    (line 6344)
* low-level font commands:               Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  822)
* LR mode:                               Modes.              (line 5686)
* 'ltugboat' class:                      tugboat template.   (line 7203)
* LuaTeX:                                TeX engines.        (line  416)
* m-width:                               Units of length.    (line 4322)
* macro package, LaTeX as:               Overview.           (line  298)
* macron accent:                         Accents.            (line 6498)
* macron accent, math:                   Math accents.       (line 5549)
* Madsen, Lars:                          eqnarray.           (line 1848)
* 'makeidx' package:                     Indexes.            (line 6815)
* 'makeindex' program:                   Indexes.            (line 6810)
* making a title page:                   titlepage.          (line 3155)
* making paragraphs:                     Making paragraphs.  (line 4394)
* marginal notes:                        Marginal notes.     (line 4434)
* masculine ordinal symbol:              Text symbols.       (line 6427)
* math accents:                          Math accents.       (line 5541)
* math formulas:                         Math formulas.      (line 4484)
* math functions:                        Math functions.     (line 5433)
* math miscellany:                       Math miscellany.    (line 5636)
* math mode:                             Modes.              (line 5686)
* math mode, entering:                   Math formulas.      (line 4484)
* math mode, spacing:                    Spacing in math mode.
                                                             (line 5593)
* math symbols:                          Math symbols.       (line 4554)
* math, bold:                            Font styles.        (line  778)
* Millimeter:                            Units of length.    (line 4311)
* minipage, creating a:                  minipage.           (line 2254)
* modes:                                 Modes.              (line 5686)
* monospace font:                        Font styles.        (line  740)
* moving arguments:                      \protect.           (line 4051)
* mpfootnote counter:                    \footnote.          (line 3470)
* mu, math unit:                         Units of length.    (line 4333)
* multicolumn text:                      \twocolumn.         (line  975)
* multilingual support:                  Accents.            (line 6475)
* 'multind' package:                     Indexes.            (line 6826)
* multiplication symbol, discretionary line break: Math miscellany.
                                                             (line 5637)
* nested '\include', not allowed:        \include.           (line 6675)
* new commands, defining:                \newcommand & \renewcommand.
                                                             (line 3649)
* new commands, defining <1>:            \providecommand.    (line 3734)
* new line, output as input:             \obeycr & \restorecr.
                                                             (line 3268)
* new line, starting:                    \\.                 (line 3236)
* new line, starting (paragraph mode):   \newline.           (line 3277)
* new page, starting:                    \newpage.           (line 3384)
* non-English characters:                Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6571)
* notes in the margin:                   Marginal notes.     (line 4434)
* null delimiter:                        Math miscellany.    (line 5651)
* numbered items, specifying counter:    \usecounter.        (line 4158)
* numerals, old-style:                   Font styles.        (line  782)
* oblique font:                          Font styles.        (line  737)
* oe ligature:                           Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6608)
* ogonek:                                Accents.            (line 6539)
* old-style numerals:                    Font styles.        (line  782)
* one-column output:                     \onecolumn.         (line  965)
* opening quote:                         Text symbols.       (line 6332)
* OpenType fonts:                        TeX engines.        (line  393)
* options, document class:               Document class options.
                                                             (line  544)
* options, global:                       Document class options.
                                                             (line  641)
* ordinals, feminine and masculine:      Text symbols.       (line 6427)
* oslash:                                Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6604)
* overbar accent:                        Accents.            (line 6498)
* overdot accent, math:                  Math accents.       (line 5561)
* overview of LaTeX:                     Overview.           (line  293)
* packages, loading additional:          Document class options.
                                                             (line  633)
* page break, forcing:                   \pagebreak & \nopagebreak.
                                                             (line 3405)
* page break, preventing:                \pagebreak & \nopagebreak.
                                                             (line 3405)
* page breaking:                         Page breaking.      (line 3361)
* page layout parameters:                Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1115)
* page number, cross referencing:        \pageref.           (line 1503)
* page numbering style:                  \pagenumbering.     (line 5757)
* page styles:                           Page styles.        (line 5725)
* paragraph indentation, in minipage:    minipage.           (line 2265)
* paragraph indentations in quoted text: quotation and quote.
                                                             (line 2549)
* paragraph indentations in quoted text, omitting: quotation and quote.
                                                             (line 2549)
* paragraph mode:                        Modes.              (line 5686)
* paragraph symbol:                      Text symbols.       (line 6336)
* paragraphs:                            Making paragraphs.  (line 4394)
* parameters, for footnotes:             Footnote parameters.
                                                             (line 3628)
* parameters, page layout:               Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1115)
* pdfTeX:                                Output files.       (line  361)
* pdfTeX engine:                         TeX engines.        (line  399)
* period, centered, in text:             Text symbols.       (line 6430)
* pica:                                  Units of length.    (line 4298)
* 'pict2e' package:                      \line.              (line 2440)
* pictures, creating:                    picture.            (line 2282)
* pilcrow:                               Text symbols.       (line 6336)
* placement of floats:                   Floats.             (line 1272)
* poetry, an environment for:            verse.              (line 3206)
* Point:                                 Units of length.    (line 4294)
* polish l:                              Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6596)
* portrait orientation:                  Document class options.
                                                             (line  593)
* position, in picture:                  picture.            (line 2299)
* postscript, in letters:                \ps.                (line 7038)
* pounds symbol:                         Text symbols.       (line 6340)
* preamble, defined:                     Starting and ending.
                                                             (line  332)
* predefined lengths:                    Predefined lengths. (line 4375)
* prompt, '*':                           Command line.       (line 7136)
* pronunciation:                         Overview.           (line  311)
* quad:                                  Spacing in math mode.
                                                             (line 5619)
* question mark, upside-down:            Text symbols.       (line 6433)
* quotation marks, French:               Text symbols.       (line 6322)
* quote, straight base:                  Text symbols.       (line 6449)
* quoted text with paragraph indentation, displaying: quotation and quote.
                                                             (line 2549)
* quoted text without paragraph indentation, displaying: quotation and quote.
                                                             (line 2549)
* ragged left text:                      \raggedleft.        (line 2065)
* ragged left text, environment for:     flushright.         (line 2052)
* ragged right text:                     \raggedright.       (line 2039)
* ragged right text, environment for:    flushleft.          (line 2026)
* redefining environments:               \newenvironment & \renewenvironment.
                                                             (line 3800)
* references, resolving forward:         Output files.       (line  374)
* registered symbol:                     Text symbols.       (line 6452)
* remarks in the margin:                 Marginal notes.     (line 4434)
* reporting bugs:                        About this document.
                                                             (line  250)
* reserved characters:                   Reserved characters.
                                                             (line 6267)
* right angle quotation marks:           Text symbols.       (line 6322)
* right arrow, in text:                  Text symbols.       (line 6455)
* right brace, in text:                  Text symbols.       (line 6380)
* right quote:                           Text symbols.       (line 6347)
* right quote, double:                   Text symbols.       (line 6439)
* right quote, single:                   Text symbols.       (line 6445)
* right-hand equation numbers:           Document class options.
                                                             (line  596)
* right-justifying text:                 \raggedleft.        (line 2065)
* right-justifying text, environment for: flushright.        (line 2052)
* ring accent:                           Accents.            (line 6544)
* ring accent, math:                     Math accents.       (line 5576)
* robust commands:                       \protect.           (line 4051)
* roman font:                            Font styles.        (line  728)
* rubber lengths, defining new:          \newlength.         (line 3770)
* running header and footer:             Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1115)
* running header and footer style:       \pagestyle.         (line 5782)
* sans serif font:                       Font styles.        (line  734)
* Scaled point:                          Units of length.    (line 4320)
* script letters for math:               Font styles.        (line  722)
* section number, cross referencing:     \ref.               (line 1513)
* section numbers, printing:             Sectioning.         (line 1438)
* section symbol:                        Text symbols.       (line 6350)
* sectioning commands:                   Sectioning.         (line 1397)
* series, of fonts:                      Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  861)
* 'setspace' package:                    Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  930)
* setting counters:                      \setcounter.        (line 4213)
* shapes, of fonts:                      Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  901)
* sharp S letters:                       Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6612)
* 'showidx' package:                     Indexes.            (line 6822)
* simulating typed text:                 verbatim.           (line 3172)
* single angle quotation marks:          Text symbols.       (line 6322)
* single guillemets:                     Text symbols.       (line 6322)
* single left quote:                     Text symbols.       (line 6442)
* single low-9 quotation mark:           Text symbols.       (line 6344)
* single right quote:                    Text symbols.       (line 6445)
* sizes of text:                         Font sizes.         (line  796)
* skip register, plain TeX:              \newlength.         (line 3770)
* slanted font:                          Font styles.        (line  737)
* small caps font:                       Font styles.        (line  731)
* space, inserting vertical:             \addvspace.         (line 6006)
* space, vertical:                       \vspace.            (line 6075)
* spaces:                                Spaces.             (line 5825)
* spacing within math mode:              Spacing in math mode.
                                                             (line 5593)
* spacing, intersentence:                \frenchspacing.     (line 5938)
* Spanish ordinals, feminine and masculine: Text symbols.    (line 6427)
* special characters:                    Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6571)
* special insertions:                    Special insertions. (line 6261)
* specifier, float placement:            Floats.             (line 1272)
* splitting the input file:              Splitting the input.
                                                             (line 6651)
* starting a new page:                   \newpage.           (line 3384)
* starting a new page and clearing floats: \clearpage.       (line 3377)
* starting and ending:                   Starting and ending.
                                                             (line  319)
* starting on a right-hand page:         \cleardoublepage.   (line 3368)
* sterling symbol:                       Text symbols.       (line 6340)
* straight double quote, base:           Text symbols.       (line 6449)
* straight quote, base:                  Text symbols.       (line 6449)
* stretch, infinite horizontal:          \hfill.             (line 5857)
* stretch, infinite vertical:            \vfill.             (line 6049)
* stretch, omitting vertical:            \raggedbottom.      (line 1103)
* styles of text:                        Font styles.        (line  654)
* styles, page:                          Page styles.        (line 5725)
* subscript:                             Subscripts & superscripts.
                                                             (line 4521)
* superscript:                           Subscripts & superscripts.
                                                             (line 4521)
* symbols, math:                         Math symbols.       (line 4554)
* symbols, text:                         Text symbols.       (line 6298)
* tab stops, using:                      tabbing.            (line 2585)
* table of contents entry, manually adding: \addcontentsline.
                                                             (line 6734)
* table of contents file:                Output files.       (line  384)
* table of contents, creating:           Tables of contents. (line 6713)
* tables, creating:                      table.              (line 2676)
* template, 'beamer':                    beamer template.    (line 7152)
* template, 'book':                      book template.      (line 7183)
* template, TUGboat:                     tugboat template.   (line 7203)
* templates, document:                   Document templates. (line 7145)
* terminal input/output:                 Terminal input/output.
                                                             (line 7091)
* TeX logo:                              Text symbols.       (line 6353)
* text symbols:                          Text symbols.       (line 6298)
* 'textcomp' package:                    Font styles.        (line  782)
* thanks, for titlepage:                 \maketitle.         (line 5747)
* theorem-like environment:              \newtheorem.        (line 3904)
* theorems, defining:                    \newtheorem.        (line 3904)
* theorems, typesetting:                 theorem.            (line 3142)
* thorn, Icelandic letter:               Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6616)
* three-quarters em-dash:                Text symbols.       (line 6458)
* tie-after accent:                      Accents.            (line 6550)
* tilde accent:                          Accents.            (line 6512)
* tilde accent, math:                    Math accents.       (line 5579)
* tilde, ASCII, in text:                 Text symbols.       (line 6359)
* title page, separate or run-in:        Document class options.
                                                             (line  604)
* title pages, creating:                 titlepage.          (line 3155)
* title, for titlepage:                  \maketitle.         (line 5751)
* titles, making:                        \maketitle.         (line 5731)
* trademark symbol:                      Text symbols.       (line 6461)
* transcript file:                       Output files.       (line  369)
* TrueType fonts:                        TeX engines.        (line  393)
* TUGboat template:                      tugboat template.   (line 7203)
* two-column output:                     \twocolumn.         (line  975)
* two-thirds em-dash:                    Text symbols.       (line 6464)
* type styles:                           Font styles.        (line  654)
* typed text, simulating:                verbatim.           (line 3172)
* typeface sizes:                        Font sizes.         (line  796)
* typefaces:                             Fonts.              (line  648)
* typewriter font:                       Font styles.        (line  740)
* typewriter labels in lists:            description.        (line 1688)
* umlaut accent:                         Accents.            (line 6485)
* underbar:                              Accents.            (line 6558)
* underscore, in text:                   Text symbols.       (line 6467)
* Unicode input, native:                 TeX engines.        (line  393)
* units, of length:                      Units of length.    (line 4290)
* unofficial nature of this manual:      About this document.
                                                             (line  261)
* unordered lists:                       itemize.            (line 2078)
* using BibTeX:                          Using BibTeX.       (line 3105)
* UTF-8:                                 TeX engines.        (line  393)
* variables, a list of:                  Counters.           (line 4100)
* vector symbol, math:                   Math accents.       (line 5582)
* verbatim text:                         verbatim.           (line 3172)
* verbatim text, inline:                 \verb.              (line 3189)
* vertical bar, double, in text:         Text symbols.       (line 6371)
* vertical bar, in text:                 Text symbols.       (line 6368)
* vertical space:                        \addvspace.         (line 6006)
* vertical space <1>:                    \vspace.            (line 6075)
* vertical space before paragraphs:      \parskip.           (line 4428)
* visible space:                         \verb.              (line 3200)
* visible space symbol, in text:         Text symbols.       (line 6470)
* weights, of fonts:                     Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  871)
* white space:                           Spaces.             (line 5825)
* wide hat accent, math:                 Math accents.       (line 5585)
* wide tilde accent, math:               Math accents.       (line 5588)
* widths, of fonts:                      Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  883)
* writing external files:                filecontents.       (line 1975)
* writing letters:                       Letters.            (line 6833)
* x-height:                              Units of length.    (line 4322)
* XeTeX:                                 TeX engines.        (line  425)
* 'xindy' program:                       Indexes.            (line 6810)

Command Index
*************

* Menu:

* $:                                     Math formulas.      (line 4502)
* &:                                     tabular.            (line 2744)
* --help command-line option:            Command line.       (line 7132)
* .aux file:                             Output files.       (line  374)
* .dvi file:                             Output files.       (line  351)
* .fd file:                              \newfont.           (line 4026)
* .lof file:                             Output files.       (line  384)
* .lof file <1>:                         Tables of contents. (line 6723)
* .log file:                             Output files.       (line  369)
* .lot file:                             Output files.       (line  384)
* .lot file <1>:                         Tables of contents. (line 6723)
* .pdf file:                             Output files.       (line  361)
* .tex, default extension:               Command line.       (line 7124)
* .toc file:                             Output files.       (line  384)
* .toc file <1>:                         Tables of contents. (line 6713)
* .xdv file:                             TeX engines.        (line  425)
* 10pt option:                           Document class options.
                                                             (line  552)
* 11pt option:                           Document class options.
                                                             (line  552)
* 12pt option:                           Document class options.
                                                             (line  552)
* [...] for optional arguments:          LaTeX command syntax.
                                                             (line  444)
* \ character starting commands:         LaTeX command syntax.
                                                             (line  444)
* \!:                                    Spacing in math mode.
                                                             (line 5616)
* \" (umlaut accent):                    Accents.            (line 6485)
* \#:                                    Reserved characters.
                                                             (line 6272)
* \$:                                    Reserved characters.
                                                             (line 6272)
* \%:                                    Reserved characters.
                                                             (line 6272)
* \&:                                    Reserved characters.
                                                             (line 6272)
* \' (acute accent):                     Accents.            (line 6489)
* \' (tabbing):                          tabbing.            (line 2624)
* \(:                                    Math formulas.      (line 4494)
* \(SPACE):                              \(SPACE) and \@.    (line 5867)
* \):                                    Math formulas.      (line 4494)
* \*:                                    Math miscellany.    (line 5636)
* \+:                                    tabbing.            (line 2616)
* \,:                                    Spacing in math mode.
                                                             (line 5612)
* \-:                                    tabbing.            (line 2620)
* \- (hyphenation):                      \- (hyphenation).   (line 3298)
* \. (dot-over accent):                  Accents.            (line 6494)
* \/:                                    \/.                 (line 5958)
* \::                                    Spacing in math mode.
                                                             (line 5608)
* \;:                                    Spacing in math mode.
                                                             (line 5603)
* \<:                                    tabbing.            (line 2612)
* \= (macron accent):                    Accents.            (line 6498)
* \= (tabbing):                          tabbing.            (line 2606)
* \>:                                    tabbing.            (line 2610)
* \> <1>:                                Spacing in math mode.
                                                             (line 5608)
* \> (tabbing):                          tabbing.            (line 2609)
* \@:                                    \(SPACE) and \@.    (line 5867)
* \@fnsymbol:                            \footnote.          (line 3458)
* \a (tabbing):                          tabbing.            (line 2639)
* \a' (acute accent in tabbing):         tabbing.            (line 2640)
* \a= (macron accent in tabbing):        tabbing.            (line 2640)
* \aa (aa):                              Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6576)
* \AA (AA):                              Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6576)
* \acute:                                Math accents.       (line 5545)
* \addcontentsline{EXT}{UNIT}{TEXT}:     \addcontentsline.   (line 6734)
* \address:                              \address.           (line 6913)
* \addtocontents{EXT}{TEXT}:             \addtocontents.     (line 6763)
* \addtocounter:                         \addtocounter.      (line 4224)
* \addtolength:                          \addtolength.       (line 4347)
* \addvspace:                            \addvspace.         (line 6006)
* \ae (ae):                              Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6580)
* \AE (AE):                              Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6580)
* \aleph:                                Math symbols.       (line 4567)
* \alph:                                 \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol.
                                                             (line 4128)
* \Alph:                                 \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol.
                                                             (line 4131)
* \Alph example:                         enumerate.          (line 1832)
* \alpha:                                Math symbols.       (line 4570)
* \alsoname:                             Indexes.            (line 6807)
* \amalg:                                Math symbols.       (line 4573)
* \and for '\author':                    \maketitle.         (line 5737)
* \angle:                                Math symbols.       (line 4576)
* \appendix:                             Sectioning.         (line 1428)
* \approx:                               Math symbols.       (line 4581)
* \arabic:                               \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol.
                                                             (line 4134)
* \arccos:                               Math functions.     (line 5436)
* \arcsin:                               Math functions.     (line 5439)
* \arctan:                               Math functions.     (line 5442)
* \arg:                                  Math functions.     (line 5445)
* \arraycolsep:                          array.              (line 1579)
* \arrayrulewidth:                       tabular.            (line 2868)
* \arraystretch:                         tabular.            (line 2874)
* \ast:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4584)
* \asymp:                                Math symbols.       (line 4593)
* \AtBeginDocument:                      \AtBeginDocument.   (line 1757)
* \AtEndDocument:                        \AtEndDocument.     (line 1770)
* \author{NAME \and NAME2}:              \maketitle.         (line 5736)
* \a` (grave accent in tabbing):         tabbing.            (line 2640)
* \b (bar-under accent):                 Accents.            (line 6515)
* \backslash:                            Math symbols.       (line 4596)
* \backslash <1>:                        Reserved characters.
                                                             (line 6277)
* \bar:                                  Math accents.       (line 5548)
* \baselineskip:                         Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  914)
* \baselinestretch:                      Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  924)
* \begin:                                Environments.       (line 1525)
* \beta:                                 Math symbols.       (line 4600)
* \bf:                                   Font styles.        (line  718)
* \bfseries:                             Font styles.        (line  687)
* \bibitem:                              \bibitem.           (line 3065)
* \bibliography:                         Using BibTeX.       (line 3105)
* \bibliographystyle:                    Using BibTeX.       (line 3105)
* \bigcap:                               Math symbols.       (line 4603)
* \bigcirc:                              Math symbols.       (line 4607)
* \bigcup:                               Math symbols.       (line 4611)
* \bigodot:                              Math symbols.       (line 4615)
* \bigoplus:                             Math symbols.       (line 4618)
* \bigotimes:                            Math symbols.       (line 4621)
* \bigskip:                              \bigskip \medskip \smallskip.
                                                             (line 6032)
* \bigskipamount:                        \bigskip \medskip \smallskip.
                                                             (line 6032)
* \bigsqcup:                             Math symbols.       (line 4632)
* \bigtriangledown:                      Math symbols.       (line 4624)
* \bigtriangleup:                        Math symbols.       (line 4628)
* \biguplus:                             Math symbols.       (line 4635)
* \bigvee:                               Math symbols.       (line 4639)
* \bigwedge:                             Math symbols.       (line 4642)
* \bmod:                                 Math functions.     (line 5448)
* \boldmath:                             Math formulas.      (line 4507)
* \bot:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4645)
* \bottomfraction:                       Floats.             (line 1335)
* \bottomfraction <1>:                   Floats.             (line 1336)
* \bowtie:                               Math symbols.       (line 4649)
* \Box:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4652)
* \breve:                                Math accents.       (line 5551)
* \bullet:                               Math symbols.       (line 4657)
* \c (cedilla accent):                   Accents.            (line 6520)
* \cal:                                  Font styles.        (line  721)
* \cap:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4660)
* \capitalacute:                         Accents.            (line 6489)
* \capitalbreve:                         Accents.            (line 6555)
* \capitalcaron:                         Accents.            (line 6566)
* \capitalcedilla:                       Accents.            (line 6520)
* \capitalcircumflex:                    Accents.            (line 6502)
* \capitaldieresis:                      Accents.            (line 6485)
* \capitaldotaccent:                     Accents.            (line 6524)
* \capitalgrave:                         Accents.            (line 6506)
* \capitalhungarumlaut:                  Accents.            (line 6528)
* \capitalmacron:                        Accents.            (line 6498)
* \capitalnewtie:                        Accents.            (line 6550)
* \capitalogonek:                        Accents.            (line 6539)
* \capitalring:                          Accents.            (line 6544)
* \capitaltie:                           Accents.            (line 6550)
* \capitaltilde:                         Accents.            (line 6512)
* \caption:                              figure.             (line 1956)
* \caption <1>:                          table.              (line 2696)
* \cc:                                   \cc.                (line 6940)
* \cdot:                                 Math symbols.       (line 4665)
* \cdots:                                Math miscellany.    (line 5640)
* \centering:                            \centering.         (line 1639)
* \chapter:                              Sectioning.         (line 1400)
* \check:                                Math accents.       (line 5554)
* \chi:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4668)
* \circ:                                 Math symbols.       (line 4671)
* \circle:                               \circle.            (line 2352)
* \cite:                                 \cite.              (line 3083)
* \cleardoublepage:                      \cleardoublepage.   (line 3368)
* \clearpage:                            \clearpage.         (line 3377)
* \cline:                                \cline.             (line 3001)
* \closing:                              \closing.           (line 6955)
* \clubsuit:                             Math symbols.       (line 4676)
* \columnsep:                            \twocolumn.         (line  990)
* \columnsep <1>:                        Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1115)
* \columnsep <2>:                        Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1118)
* \columnseprule:                        \twocolumn.         (line  996)
* \columnseprule <1>:                    Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1116)
* \columnseprule <2>:                    Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1118)
* \columnwidth:                          \twocolumn.         (line 1003)
* \columnwidth <1>:                      Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1117)
* \columnwidth <2>:                      Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1118)
* \complement:                           Math symbols.       (line 4679)
* \cong:                                 Math symbols.       (line 4685)
* \contentsline:                         \addcontentsline.   (line 6757)
* \coprod:                               Math symbols.       (line 4688)
* \copyright:                            Text symbols.       (line 6302)
* \cos:                                  Math functions.     (line 5451)
* \cosh:                                 Math functions.     (line 5454)
* \cot:                                  Math functions.     (line 5457)
* \coth:                                 Math functions.     (line 5460)
* \csc:                                  Math functions.     (line 5463)
* \cup:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4691)
* \d (dot-under accent):                 Accents.            (line 6524)
* \dag:                                  Text symbols.       (line 6306)
* \dagger:                               Math symbols.       (line 4696)
* \dashbox:                              \dashbox.           (line 2407)
* \dashv:                                Math symbols.       (line 4699)
* \date{TEXT}:                           \maketitle.         (line 5742)
* \day:                                  \day \month \year.  (line 4251)
* \dblfloatpagefraction:                 \twocolumn.         (line 1037)
* \dblfloatsep:                          \twocolumn.         (line 1043)
* \dbltextfloatsep:                      \twocolumn.         (line 1050)
* \dbltopfraction:                       \twocolumn.         (line 1015)
* \dbltopnumber:                         \twocolumn.         (line 1055)
* \ddag:                                 Text symbols.       (line 6309)
* \ddagger:                              Math symbols.       (line 4703)
* \ddot:                                 Math accents.       (line 5557)
* \ddots:                                Math miscellany.    (line 5644)
* \deg:                                  Math functions.     (line 5466)
* \Delta:                                Math symbols.       (line 4706)
* \delta:                                Math symbols.       (line 4709)
* \depth:                                Predefined lengths. (line 4379)
* \det:                                  Math functions.     (line 5469)
* \dh (d):                               Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6584)
* \DH (D):                               Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6584)
* \Diamond:                              Math symbols.       (line 4712)
* \diamond:                              Math symbols.       (line 4716)
* \diamondsuit:                          Math symbols.       (line 4720)
* \dim:                                  Math functions.     (line 5472)
* \displaystyle:                         Math formulas.      (line 4512)
* \div:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4723)
* \dj:                                   Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6588)
* \DJ:                                   Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6588)
* \documentclass:                        Document classes.   (line  510)
* \dot:                                  Math accents.       (line 5560)
* \doteq:                                Math symbols.       (line 4726)
* \dotfill:                              \hrulefill \dotfill.
                                                             (line 5983)
* \dots:                                 Text symbols.       (line 6326)
* \doublerulesep:                        tabular.            (line 2879)
* \downarrow:                            Math symbols.       (line 4730)
* \Downarrow:                            Math symbols.       (line 4734)
* \ell:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4738)
* \emph:                                 Font styles.        (line  707)
* \emptyset:                             Math symbols.       (line 4741)
* \encl:                                 \encl.              (line 6967)
* \end:                                  Environments.       (line 1525)
* \enlargethispage:                      \enlargethispage.   (line 3390)
* \enumi:                                enumerate.          (line 1822)
* \enumii:                               enumerate.          (line 1822)
* \enumiii:                              enumerate.          (line 1822)
* \enumiv:                               enumerate.          (line 1822)
* \epsilon:                              Math symbols.       (line 4745)
* \equiv:                                Math symbols.       (line 4750)
* \eta:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4753)
* \evensidemargin:                       Document class options.
                                                             (line  615)
* \evensidemargin <1>:                   Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1176)
* \evensidemargin <2>:                   Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1177)
* \exists:                               Math symbols.       (line 4756)
* \exp:                                  Math functions.     (line 5475)
* \extracolsep:                          tabular.            (line 2827)
* \fbox:                                 \fbox and \framebox.
                                                             (line 6114)
* \fboxrule:                             \framebox (picture).
                                                             (line 2401)
* \fboxrule <1>:                         \fbox and \framebox.
                                                             (line 6126)
* \fboxsep:                              \framebox (picture).
                                                             (line 2401)
* \fboxsep <1>:                          \fbox and \framebox.
                                                             (line 6126)
* \fill:                                 \hfill.             (line 5860)
* \flat:                                 Math symbols.       (line 4759)
* \floatpagefraction:                    Floats.             (line 1339)
* \floatpagefraction <1>:                Floats.             (line 1340)
* \floatsep:                             Floats.             (line 1355)
* \floatsep <1>:                         Floats.             (line 1356)
* \flushbottom:                          \flushbottom.       (line 1084)
* \fnsymbol:                             \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol.
                                                             (line 4143)
* \fnsymbol, and footnotes:              \footnote.          (line 3458)
* \fontencoding:                         Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  827)
* \fontfamily:                           Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  836)
* \fontseries:                           Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  861)
* \fontshape:                            Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  901)
* \fontsize:                             Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  914)
* \footnote:                             \footnote.          (line 3441)
* \footnotemark:                         \footnotemark.      (line 3479)
* \footnoterule:                         Footnote parameters.
                                                             (line 3628)
* \footnotesep:                          Footnote parameters.
                                                             (line 3634)
* \footnotesize:                         Font sizes.         (line  801)
* \footnotetext:                         \footnotetext.      (line 3511)
* \footskip:                             Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1135)
* \footskip <1>:                         Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1136)
* \forall:                               Math symbols.       (line 4762)
* \frac:                                 Math miscellany.    (line 5648)
* \frac{num}{den}:                       Math miscellany.    (line 5647)
* \frame:                                \frame.             (line 2422)
* \framebox:                             \framebox (picture).
                                                             (line 2393)
* \framebox <1>:                         \fbox and \framebox.
                                                             (line 6114)
* \frenchspacing:                        \frenchspacing.     (line 5938)
* \frown:                                Math symbols.       (line 4765)
* \fussy:                                \fussy.             (line 3310)
* \Gamma:                                Math symbols.       (line 4768)
* \gamma:                                Math symbols.       (line 4771)
* \gcd:                                  Math functions.     (line 5478)
* \ge:                                   Math symbols.       (line 4774)
* \geq:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4778)
* \gets:                                 Math symbols.       (line 4782)
* \gg:                                   Math symbols.       (line 4785)
* \glossary:                             Glossaries.         (line 6780)
* \glossaryentry:                        Glossaries.         (line 6783)
* \grave:                                Math accents.       (line 5563)
* \guillemotleft (<<):                   Text symbols.       (line 6318)
* \guillemotright (>>):                  Text symbols.       (line 6319)
* \guilsinglleft (<):                    Text symbols.       (line 6320)
* \guilsinglright (>):                   Text symbols.       (line 6321)
* \H (Hungarian umlaut accent):          Accents.            (line 6528)
* \hat:                                  Math accents.       (line 5566)
* \hbar:                                 Math symbols.       (line 4789)
* \headheight:                           Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1123)
* \headheight <1>:                       Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1124)
* \headsep:                              Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1128)
* \headsep <1>:                          Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1129)
* \heartsuit:                            Math symbols.       (line 4792)
* \height:                               Predefined lengths. (line 4377)
* \hfill:                                \hfill.             (line 5857)
* \hline:                                \hline.             (line 3023)
* \hom:                                  Math functions.     (line 5481)
* \hookleftarrow:                        Math symbols.       (line 4795)
* \hookrightarrow:                       Math symbols.       (line 4798)
* \hrulefill:                            \hrulefill \dotfill.
                                                             (line 5983)
* \hsize:                                Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1228)
* \hsize <1>:                            Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1228)
* \hspace:                               \hspace.            (line 5830)
* \huge:                                 Font sizes.         (line  801)
* \Huge:                                 Font sizes.         (line  801)
* \hyphenation:                          \hyphenation.       (line 3328)
* \i (dotless i):                        Accents.            (line 6532)
* \iff:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4801)
* \ij (ij):                              Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6592)
* \IJ (IJ):                              Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6592)
* \Im:                                   Math symbols.       (line 4805)
* \imath:                                Math accents.       (line 5569)
* \in:                                   Math symbols.       (line 4808)
* \include:                              \include.           (line 6663)
* \includeonly:                          \includeonly.       (line 6681)
* \indent:                               \indent.            (line 4402)
* \index:                                Indexes.            (line 6796)
* \indexentry:                           Indexes.            (line 6799)
* \inf:                                  Math functions.     (line 5484)
* \infty:                                Math symbols.       (line 4813)
* \input:                                \input.             (line 6695)
* \int:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4816)
* \intextsep:                            Floats.             (line 1359)
* \intextsep <1>:                        Floats.             (line 1360)
* \iota:                                 Math symbols.       (line 4819)
* \it:                                   Font styles.        (line  724)
* \item:                                 description.        (line 1679)
* \item <1>:                             description.        (line 1684)
* \item <2>:                             enumerate.          (line 1798)
* \item <3>:                             itemize.            (line 2078)
* \itemindent:                           itemize.            (line 2121)
* \itemsep:                              itemize.            (line 2143)
* \itshape:                              Font styles.        (line  681)
* \j (dotless j):                        Accents.            (line 6535)
* \jmath:                                Math accents.       (line 5572)
* \Join:                                 Math symbols.       (line 4822)
* \k (ogonek):                           Accents.            (line 6539)
* \kappa:                                Math symbols.       (line 4826)
* \ker:                                  Math functions.     (line 5487)
* \kill:                                 tabbing.            (line 2644)
* \l (/l):                               Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6596)
* \L (/L):                               Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6596)
* \label:                                \label.             (line 1455)
* \labelenumi:                           enumerate.          (line 1827)
* \labelenumii:                          enumerate.          (line 1827)
* \labelenumiii:                         enumerate.          (line 1827)
* \labelenumiv:                          enumerate.          (line 1827)
* \labelitemi:                           itemize.            (line 2101)
* \labelitemii:                          itemize.            (line 2101)
* \labelitemiii:                         itemize.            (line 2101)
* \labelitemiv:                          itemize.            (line 2101)
* \labelsep:                             itemize.            (line 2124)
* \labelwidth:                           itemize.            (line 2127)
* \Lambda:                               Math symbols.       (line 4829)
* \lambda:                               Math symbols.       (line 4832)
* \land:                                 Math symbols.       (line 4835)
* \langle:                               Math symbols.       (line 4840)
* \large:                                Font sizes.         (line  801)
* \Large:                                Font sizes.         (line  801)
* \LARGE:                                Font sizes.         (line  801)
* \LaTeX:                                Text symbols.       (line 6312)
* \LaTeXe:                               Text symbols.       (line 6315)
* \lbrace:                               Math symbols.       (line 4845)
* \lbrack:                               Math symbols.       (line 4849)
* \lceil:                                Math symbols.       (line 4853)
* \ldots:                                Text symbols.       (line 6325)
* \le:                                   Math symbols.       (line 4857)
* \leadsto:                              Math symbols.       (line 4861)
* \left DELIM1 ... \right DELIM2:        Math miscellany.    (line 5650)
* \Leftarrow:                            Math symbols.       (line 4868)
* \leftarrow:                            Math symbols.       (line 4873)
* \lefteqn:                              eqnarray.           (line 1888)
* \leftharpoondown:                      Math symbols.       (line 4877)
* \leftharpoonup:                        Math symbols.       (line 4880)
* \leftmargin:                           itemize.            (line 2108)
* \leftmargini:                          itemize.            (line 2108)
* \leftmarginii:                         itemize.            (line 2108)
* \leftmarginiii:                        itemize.            (line 2108)
* \leftmarginiv:                         itemize.            (line 2108)
* \leftmarginv:                          itemize.            (line 2108)
* \leftmarginvi:                         itemize.            (line 2108)
* \Leftrightarrow:                       Math symbols.       (line 4883)
* \leftrightarrow:                       Math symbols.       (line 4888)
* \leq:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4893)
* \lfloor:                               Math symbols.       (line 4897)
* \lg:                                   Math functions.     (line 5490)
* \lhd:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4900)
* \lim:                                  Math functions.     (line 5493)
* \liminf:                               Math functions.     (line 5496)
* \limsup:                               Math functions.     (line 5499)
* \line:                                 \line.              (line 2433)
* \linebreak:                            \linebreak & \nolinebreak.
                                                             (line 3344)
* \linespread:                           Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  937)
* \linethickness:                        \linethickness.     (line 2447)
* \linewidth:                            Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1142)
* \linewidth <1>:                        Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1143)
* \listoffigures:                        Tables of contents. (line 6723)
* \listoftables:                         Tables of contents. (line 6723)
* \listparindent:                        itemize.            (line 2130)
* \ll:                                   Math symbols.       (line 4907)
* \ln:                                   Math functions.     (line 5502)
* \lnot:                                 Math symbols.       (line 4911)
* \location:                             \location.          (line 6983)
* \log:                                  Math functions.     (line 5505)
* \longleftarrow:                        Math symbols.       (line 4914)
* \longleftrightarrow:                   Math symbols.       (line 4919)
* \longmapsto:                           Math symbols.       (line 4923)
* \longrightarrow:                       Math symbols.       (line 4928)
* \lor:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4933)
* \lq:                                   Text symbols.       (line 6331)
* \makebox:                              \makebox.           (line 6146)
* \makebox (for 'picture'):              \makebox (picture). (line 2365)
* \makeglossary:                         Glossaries.         (line 6778)
* \makeindex:                            Indexes.            (line 6793)
* \makelabels:                           \makelabels.        (line 6993)
* \maketitle:                            \maketitle.         (line 5731)
* \mapsto:                               Math symbols.       (line 4936)
* \marginpar:                            Marginal notes.     (line 4434)
* \marginparpush:                        Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1149)
* \marginparpush <1>:                    Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1152)
* \marginparpush <2>:                    Marginal notes.     (line 4464)
* \marginparsep:                         Marginal notes.     (line 4468)
* \marginparwidth:                       Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1151)
* \marginparwidth <1>:                   Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1152)
* \marginparwidth <2>:                   Marginal notes.     (line 4472)
* \marginsep:                            Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1150)
* \marginsep <1>:                        Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1152)
* \markboth{LEFT}{RIGHT}:                \pagestyle.         (line 5805)
* \markright{RIGHT}:                     \pagestyle.         (line 5812)
* \mathbf:                               Font styles.        (line  760)
* \mathcal:                              Font styles.        (line  776)
* \mathnormal:                           Font styles.        (line  773)
* \mathring:                             Math accents.       (line 5575)
* \mathrm:                               Font styles.        (line  757)
* \mathsf:                               Font styles.        (line  763)
* \mathtt:                               Font styles.        (line  766)
* \mathversion:                          Font styles.        (line  778)
* \max:                                  Math functions.     (line 5508)
* \mbox:                                 \mbox.              (line 6107)
* \mbox, and LR mode:                    Modes.              (line 5704)
* \mdseries:                             Font styles.        (line  684)
* \medskip:                              \bigskip \medskip \smallskip.
                                                             (line 6037)
* \medskipamount:                        \bigskip \medskip \smallskip.
                                                             (line 6037)
* \medspace:                             Spacing in math mode.
                                                             (line 5608)
* \mho:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4940)
* \mid:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4945)
* \min:                                  Math functions.     (line 5511)
* \models:                               Math symbols.       (line 4955)
* \month:                                \day \month \year.  (line 4251)
* \mp:                                   Math symbols.       (line 4960)
* \mu:                                   Math symbols.       (line 4963)
* \multicolumn:                          \multicolumn.       (line 2894)
* \multiput:                             \multiput.          (line 2471)
* \nabla:                                Math symbols.       (line 4966)
* \name:                                 \name.              (line 7015)
* \natural:                              Math symbols.       (line 4969)
* \ne:                                   Math symbols.       (line 4972)
* \nearrow:                              Math symbols.       (line 4975)
* \neg:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4978)
* \neq:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4982)
* \newcommand:                           \newcommand & \renewcommand.
                                                             (line 3649)
* \newcounter:                           \newcounter.        (line 3749)
* \newenvironment:                       \newenvironment & \renewenvironment.
                                                             (line 3800)
* \newfont:                              \newfont.           (line 4016)
* \newlength:                            \newlength.         (line 3770)
* \newline:                              \newline.           (line 3277)
* \NEWLINE:                              \(SPACE) and \@.    (line 5867)
* \newpage:                              \newpage.           (line 3384)
* \newsavebox:                           \newsavebox.        (line 3785)
* \newtheorem:                           \newtheorem.        (line 3904)
* \newtie:                               Accents.            (line 6550)
* \ng:                                   Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6600)
* \NG:                                   Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6600)
* \ni:                                   Math symbols.       (line 4985)
* \nocite:                               \nocite.            (line 3097)
* \nocorr:                               Font styles.        (line  669)
* \nocorrlist:                           Font styles.        (line  669)
* \nofiles:                              Tables of contents. (line 6728)
* \noindent:                             \noindent.          (line 4413)
* \nolinebreak:                          \linebreak & \nolinebreak.
                                                             (line 3344)
* \nonfrenchspacing:                     \frenchspacing.     (line 5938)
* \nonumber:                             eqnarray.           (line 1883)
* \nopagebreak:                          \pagebreak & \nopagebreak.
                                                             (line 3405)
* \normalfont:                           Font styles.        (line  705)
* \normalmarginpar:                      Marginal notes.     (line 4452)
* \normalsize:                           Font sizes.         (line  801)
* \not:                                  Math symbols.       (line 4990)
* \notin:                                Math symbols.       (line 4998)
* \nu:                                   Math symbols.       (line 5002)
* \nwarrow:                              Math symbols.       (line 5005)
* \o (/o):                               Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6604)
* \O (/O):                               Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6604)
* \obeycr:                               \obeycr & \restorecr.
                                                             (line 3268)
* \oddsidemargin:                        Document class options.
                                                             (line  615)
* \oddsidemargin <1>:                    Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1175)
* \oddsidemargin <2>:                    Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1177)
* \odot:                                 Math symbols.       (line 5008)
* \oe (oe):                              Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6608)
* \OE (OE):                              Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6608)
* \oint:                                 Math symbols.       (line 5013)
* \oldstylenums:                         Font styles.        (line  782)
* \Omega:                                Math symbols.       (line 5017)
* \omega:                                Math symbols.       (line 5020)
* \ominus:                               Math symbols.       (line 5023)
* \onecolumn:                            \onecolumn.         (line  965)
* \opening:                              \opening.           (line 7025)
* \oplus:                                Math symbols.       (line 5026)
* \oslash:                               Math symbols.       (line 5030)
* \otimes:                               Math symbols.       (line 5033)
* \oval:                                 \oval.              (line 2482)
* \overbrace{TEXT}:                      Math miscellany.    (line 5655)
* \overline{TEXT}:                       Math miscellany.    (line 5659)
* \owns:                                 Math symbols.       (line 5038)
* \P:                                    Text symbols.       (line 6334)
* \pagebreak:                            \pagebreak & \nopagebreak.
                                                             (line 3405)
* \pagenumbering:                        \pagenumbering.     (line 5757)
* \pageref:                              \pageref.           (line 1503)
* \pagestyle:                            \pagestyle.         (line 5782)
* \paperheight:                          Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1188)
* \paperheight <1>:                      Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1189)
* \paperwidth:                           Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1194)
* \paperwidth <1>:                       Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1195)
* \paragraph:                            Sectioning.         (line 1405)
* \parallel:                             Math symbols.       (line 5043)
* \parbox:                               \parbox.            (line 6171)
* \parindent:                            minipage.           (line 2265)
* \parindent <1>:                        \indent.            (line 4402)
* \parsep:                               itemize.            (line 2148)
* \parskip:                              \parskip.           (line 4428)
* \parskip example:                      itemize.            (line 2164)
* \part:                                 Sectioning.         (line 1399)
* \partial:                              Math symbols.       (line 5046)
* \partopsep:                            itemize.            (line 2158)
* \pdfpageheight:                        Document class options.
                                                             (line  575)
* \pdfpagewidth:                         Document class options.
                                                             (line  575)
* \perp:                                 Math symbols.       (line 5049)
* \phi:                                  Math symbols.       (line 5054)
* \Pi:                                   Math symbols.       (line 5058)
* \pi:                                   Math symbols.       (line 5061)
* \pm:                                   Math symbols.       (line 5065)
* \pmod:                                 Math functions.     (line 5514)
* \poptabs:                              tabbing.            (line 2650)
* \poptabs <1>:                          tabbing.            (line 2651)
* \pounds:                               Text symbols.       (line 6338)
* \Pr:                                   Math functions.     (line 5517)
* \prec:                                 Math symbols.       (line 5068)
* \preceq:                               Math symbols.       (line 5071)
* \prime:                                Math symbols.       (line 5076)
* \prod:                                 Math symbols.       (line 5087)
* \propto:                               Math symbols.       (line 5090)
* \protect:                              \protect.           (line 4051)
* \providecommand:                       \providecommand.    (line 3734)
* \ps:                                   \ps.                (line 7038)
* \Psi:                                  Math symbols.       (line 5093)
* \psi:                                  Math symbols.       (line 5096)
* \pushtabs:                             tabbing.            (line 2653)
* \put:                                  \put.               (line 2509)
* \qquad:                                Spacing in math mode.
                                                             (line 5625)
* \quad:                                 Spacing in math mode.
                                                             (line 5619)
* \quotedblbase (,,):                    Text symbols.       (line 6342)
* \quotesinglbase (,):                   Text symbols.       (line 6343)
* \r (ring accent):                      Accents.            (line 6544)
* \raggedbottom:                         \raggedbottom.      (line 1103)
* \raggedleft:                           \raggedleft.        (line 2065)
* \raggedright:                          \raggedright.       (line 2039)
* \raisebox:                             \raisebox.          (line 6211)
* \rangle:                               Math symbols.       (line 5099)
* \rbrace:                               Math symbols.       (line 5103)
* \rbrack:                               Math symbols.       (line 5107)
* \rceil:                                Math symbols.       (line 5111)
* \Re:                                   Math symbols.       (line 5114)
* \ref:                                  \ref.               (line 1513)
* \refstepcounter:                       \refstepcounter.    (line 4230)
* \renewenvironment:                     \newenvironment & \renewenvironment.
                                                             (line 3800)
* \restorecr:                            \obeycr & \restorecr.
                                                             (line 3268)
* \restriction:                          Math symbols.       (line 5119)
* \reversemarginpar:                     Marginal notes.     (line 4452)
* \rfloor:                               Math symbols.       (line 5124)
* \rhd:                                  Math symbols.       (line 5128)
* \rho:                                  Math symbols.       (line 5135)
* \right:                                Math miscellany.    (line 5651)
* \Rightarrow:                           Math symbols.       (line 5139)
* \rightarrow:                           Math symbols.       (line 5143)
* \rightharpoondown:                     Math symbols.       (line 5148)
* \rightharpoonup:                       Math symbols.       (line 5151)
* \rightleftharpoons:                    Math symbols.       (line 5154)
* \rightmargin:                          itemize.            (line 2134)
* \rm:                                   Font styles.        (line  727)
* \rmfamily:                             Font styles.        (line  678)
* \roman:                                \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol.
                                                             (line 4137)
* \Roman:                                \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol.
                                                             (line 4140)
* \rq:                                   Text symbols.       (line 6346)
* \rule:                                 \rule.              (line 6621)
* \S:                                    Text symbols.       (line 6349)
* \savebox:                              \savebox.           (line 6227)
* \sbox:                                 \sbox.              (line 6239)
* \sc:                                   Font styles.        (line  730)
* \scriptsize:                           Font sizes.         (line  801)
* \scshape:                              Font styles.        (line  699)
* \searrow:                              Math symbols.       (line 5157)
* \sec:                                  Math functions.     (line 5520)
* \section:                              Sectioning.         (line 1402)
* \seename:                              Indexes.            (line 6807)
* \selectfont:                           Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  943)
* \setcounter:                           \setcounter.        (line 4213)
* \setlength:                            \setlength.         (line 4340)
* \setminus:                             Math symbols.       (line 5160)
* \settodepth:                           \settodepth.        (line 4353)
* \settoheight:                          \settoheight.       (line 4361)
* \settowidth:                           \settowidth.        (line 4369)
* \sf:                                   Font styles.        (line  733)
* \sffamily:                             Font styles.        (line  696)
* \sharp:                                Math symbols.       (line 5166)
* \shortstack:                           \shortstack.        (line 2519)
* \Sigma:                                Math symbols.       (line 5169)
* \sigma:                                Math symbols.       (line 5172)
* \signature:                            \signature.         (line 7055)
* \sim:                                  Math symbols.       (line 5176)
* \simeq:                                Math symbols.       (line 5179)
* \sin:                                  Math functions.     (line 5523)
* \sinh:                                 Math functions.     (line 5526)
* \sl:                                   Font styles.        (line  736)
* \sloppy:                               \sloppy.            (line 3320)
* \slshape:                              Font styles.        (line  693)
* \small:                                Font sizes.         (line  801)
* \smallint:                             Math symbols.       (line 5182)
* \smallskip:                            \bigskip \medskip \smallskip.
                                                             (line 6042)
* \smallskipamount:                      \bigskip \medskip \smallskip.
                                                             (line 6042)
* \smile:                                Math symbols.       (line 5186)
* \spadesuit:                            Math symbols.       (line 5189)
* \sqcap:                                Math symbols.       (line 5192)
* \sqcup:                                Math symbols.       (line 5196)
* \sqrt[ROOT]{arg}:                      Math miscellany.    (line 5662)
* \sqsubset:                             Math symbols.       (line 5200)
* \sqsubseteq:                           Math symbols.       (line 5205)
* \sqsupset:                             Math symbols.       (line 5210)
* \sqsupseteq:                           Math symbols.       (line 5215)
* \ss (ss):                              Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6612)
* \SS (SS):                              Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6612)
* \stackrel{TEXT}{RELATION}:             Math miscellany.    (line 5668)
* \star:                                 Math symbols.       (line 5219)
* \stepcounter:                          \stepcounter.       (line 4244)
* \stop:                                 Command line.       (line 7136)
* \subparagraph:                         Sectioning.         (line 1406)
* \subsection:                           Sectioning.         (line 1403)
* \subset:                               Math symbols.       (line 5226)
* \subseteq:                             Math symbols.       (line 5229)
* \subsubsection:                        Sectioning.         (line 1404)
* \succ:                                 Math symbols.       (line 5232)
* \succeq:                               Math symbols.       (line 5236)
* \sum:                                  Math symbols.       (line 5241)
* \sup:                                  Math functions.     (line 5529)
* \suppressfloats:                       Floats.             (line 1328)
* \supset:                               Math symbols.       (line 5245)
* \supseteq:                             Math symbols.       (line 5248)
* \surd:                                 Math symbols.       (line 5251)
* \swarrow:                              Math symbols.       (line 5256)
* \symbol:                               Reserved characters.
                                                             (line 6286)
* \t (tie-after accent):                 Accents.            (line 6550)
* \TAB:                                  \(SPACE) and \@.    (line 5867)
* \tabbingsep:                           tabbing.            (line 2658)
* \tabcolsep:                            tabular.            (line 2883)
* \tableofcontents:                      Tables of contents. (line 6713)
* \tan:                                  Math functions.     (line 5532)
* \tanh:                                 Math functions.     (line 5535)
* \tau:                                  Math symbols.       (line 5259)
* \telephone:                            \telephone.         (line 7079)
* \TeX:                                  Text symbols.       (line 6352)
* \textascenderwordmark:                 Text symbols.       (line 6390)
* \textasciicircum:                      Text symbols.       (line 6355)
* \textasciitilde:                       Text symbols.       (line 6358)
* \textasteriskcentered:                 Text symbols.       (line 6361)
* \textbackslash:                        Text symbols.       (line 6364)
* \textbar:                              Text symbols.       (line 6367)
* \textbardbl:                           Text symbols.       (line 6370)
* \textbf:                               Font styles.        (line  687)
* \textbigcircle:                        Text symbols.       (line 6373)
* \textbraceleft:                        Text symbols.       (line 6376)
* \textbraceright:                       Text symbols.       (line 6379)
* \textbullet:                           Text symbols.       (line 6382)
* \textcapitalwordmark:                  Text symbols.       (line 6389)
* \textcircled{LETTER}:                  Text symbols.       (line 6385)
* \textcompwordmark:                     Text symbols.       (line 6388)
* \textcopyright:                        Text symbols.       (line 6303)
* \textdagger:                           Text symbols.       (line 6395)
* \textdaggerdbl:                        Text symbols.       (line 6398)
* \textdollar (or '$'):                  Text symbols.       (line 6401)
* \textellipsis:                         Text symbols.       (line 6327)
* \textemdash (or '---'):                Text symbols.       (line 6404)
* \textendash (or '--'):                 Text symbols.       (line 6407)
* \texteuro:                             Text symbols.       (line 6410)
* \textexclamdown (or '!`'):             Text symbols.       (line 6413)
* \textfloatsep:                         Floats.             (line 1364)
* \textfloatsep <1>:                     Floats.             (line 1365)
* \textfraction:                         Floats.             (line 1343)
* \textfraction <1>:                     Floats.             (line 1344)
* \textgreater:                          Text symbols.       (line 6416)
* \textheight:                           Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1200)
* \textheight <1>:                       Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1201)
* \textit:                               Font styles.        (line  681)
* \textleftarrow:                        Text symbols.       (line 6422)
* \textless:                             Text symbols.       (line 6419)
* \textmd:                               Font styles.        (line  684)
* \textnormal:                           Font styles.        (line  705)
* \textordfeminine:                      Text symbols.       (line 6425)
* \textordmasculine:                     Text symbols.       (line 6426)
* \textparagraph:                        Text symbols.       (line 6335)
* \textperiodcentered:                   Text symbols.       (line 6429)
* \textquestiondown (or '?`'):           Text symbols.       (line 6432)
* \textquotedblleft (or '``'):           Text symbols.       (line 6435)
* \textquotedblright (or '''):           Text symbols.       (line 6438)
* \textquoteleft (or '`'):               Text symbols.       (line 6441)
* \textquoteright (or '''):              Text symbols.       (line 6444)
* \textquotestraightbase:                Text symbols.       (line 6447)
* \textquotestraightdblbase:             Text symbols.       (line 6448)
* \textregistered:                       Text symbols.       (line 6451)
* \textrightarrow:                       Text symbols.       (line 6454)
* \textrm:                               Font styles.        (line  678)
* \textsc:                               Font styles.        (line  699)
* \textsf:                               Font styles.        (line  696)
* \textsl:                               Font styles.        (line  693)
* \textsterling:                         Text symbols.       (line 6339)
* \textthreequartersemdash:              Text symbols.       (line 6457)
* \texttrademark:                        Text symbols.       (line 6460)
* \texttt:                               Font styles.        (line  702)
* \texttwelveudash:                      Text symbols.       (line 6463)
* \textunderscore:                       Text symbols.       (line 6466)
* \textup:                               Font styles.        (line  690)
* \textvisiblespace:                     Text symbols.       (line 6469)
* \textwidth:                            Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1208)
* \textwidth <1>:                        Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1209)
* \th (th):                              Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6616)
* \TH (TH):                              Non-English characters.
                                                             (line 6616)
* \thanks{TEXT}:                         \maketitle.         (line 5746)
* \theta:                                Math symbols.       (line 5262)
* \thicklines:                           \thicklines.        (line 2457)
* \thickspace:                           Spacing in math mode.
                                                             (line 5603)
* \thinlines:                            \thinlines.         (line 2464)
* \thinspace:                            Spacing in math mode.
                                                             (line 5612)
* \thinspace <1>:                        \thinspace.         (line 5951)
* \thispagestyle:                        \thispagestyle.     (line 5818)
* \tilde:                                Math accents.       (line 5578)
* \times:                                Math symbols.       (line 5266)
* \tiny:                                 Font sizes.         (line  801)
* \title{TEXT}:                          \maketitle.         (line 5750)
* \to:                                   Math symbols.       (line 5270)
* \today:                                \today.             (line 6640)
* \top:                                  Math symbols.       (line 5274)
* \topfraction:                          Floats.             (line 1348)
* \topfraction <1>:                      Floats.             (line 1349)
* \topmargin:                            Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1232)
* \topsep:                               itemize.            (line 2152)
* \topskip:                              Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1239)
* \topskip <1>:                          Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1240)
* \totalheight:                          Predefined lengths. (line 4381)
* \triangle:                             Math symbols.       (line 5278)
* \triangleleft:                         Math symbols.       (line 5281)
* \triangleright:                        Math symbols.       (line 5287)
* \tt:                                   Font styles.        (line  739)
* \ttfamily:                             Font styles.        (line  702)
* \twocolumn:                            \twocolumn.         (line  975)
* \typein:                               \typein.            (line 7094)
* \typeout:                              \typeout.           (line 7108)
* \u (breve accent):                     Accents.            (line 6555)
* \unboldmath:                           Math formulas.      (line 4507)
* \underbar:                             Accents.            (line 6558)
* \underbrace{math}:                     Math miscellany.    (line 5672)
* \underline{text}:                      Math miscellany.    (line 5675)
* \unitlength:                           picture.            (line 2286)
* \unlhd:                                Math symbols.       (line 5293)
* \unrhd:                                Math symbols.       (line 5300)
* \Uparrow:                              Math symbols.       (line 5307)
* \uparrow:                              Math symbols.       (line 5312)
* \Updownarrow:                          Math symbols.       (line 5316)
* \updownarrow:                          Math symbols.       (line 5321)
* \upharpoonright:                       Math symbols.       (line 5326)
* \uplus:                                Math symbols.       (line 5331)
* \upshape:                              Font styles.        (line  690)
* \Upsilon:                              Math symbols.       (line 5337)
* \upsilon:                              Math symbols.       (line 5340)
* \usebox:                               \usebox.            (line 6251)
* \usecounter:                           \usecounter.        (line 4158)
* \usefont:                              Low-level font commands.
                                                             (line  951)
* \usepackage:                           Document class options.
                                                             (line  633)
* \v (breve accent):                     Accents.            (line 6566)
* \value:                                \value.             (line 4184)
* \varepsilon:                           Math symbols.       (line 5343)
* \varphi:                               Math symbols.       (line 5348)
* \varpi:                                Math symbols.       (line 5352)
* \varrho:                               Math symbols.       (line 5356)
* \varsigma:                             Math symbols.       (line 5360)
* \vartheta:                             Math symbols.       (line 5364)
* \vdash:                                Math symbols.       (line 5368)
* \vdots:                                Math miscellany.    (line 5680)
* \vdots <1>:                            Math miscellany.    (line 5681)
* \vec:                                  Math accents.       (line 5581)
* \vector:                               \vector.            (line 2538)
* \vee:                                  Math symbols.       (line 5372)
* \verb:                                 \verb.              (line 3189)
* \Vert:                                 Math symbols.       (line 5377)
* \vert:                                 Math symbols.       (line 5393)
* \vfill:                                \vfill.             (line 6049)
* \vline:                                \vline.             (line 2974)
* \vspace:                               \vspace.            (line 6075)
* \wedge:                                Math symbols.       (line 5411)
* \widehat:                              Math accents.       (line 5584)
* \widetilde:                            Math accents.       (line 5587)
* \width:                                Predefined lengths. (line 4375)
* \wp:                                   Math symbols.       (line 5415)
* \wr:                                   Math symbols.       (line 5418)
* \Xi:                                   Math symbols.       (line 5421)
* \xi:                                   Math symbols.       (line 5424)
* \year:                                 \day \month \year.  (line 4251)
* \zeta:                                 Math symbols.       (line 5427)
* \[:                                    Math formulas.      (line 4494)
* \\ (for 'center'):                     center.             (line 1617)
* \\ (for 'eqnarray'):                   eqnarray.           (line 1871)
* \\ (for 'flushright'):                 flushright.         (line 2058)
* \\ (for '\shortstack' objects):        \shortstack.        (line 2533)
* \\ (tabbing):                          tabbing.            (line 2603)
* \\ for 'flushleft':                    flushleft.          (line 2032)
* \\ for letters:                        Letters.            (line 6877)
* \\ for 'tabular':                      tabular.            (line 2746)
* \\ for 'verse':                        verse.              (line 3217)
* \\ for '\author':                      \maketitle.         (line 5737)
* \\ for '\title':                       \maketitle.         (line 5751)
* \\ force line break:                   \\.                 (line 3236)
* \\* (for 'eqnarray'):                  eqnarray.           (line 1879)
* \]:                                    Math formulas.      (line 4494)
* \^:                                    Reserved characters.
                                                             (line 6282)
* \^ (circumflex accent):                Accents.            (line 6502)
* \_:                                    Reserved characters.
                                                             (line 6272)
* \` (grave accent):                     Accents.            (line 6506)
* \` (tabbing):                          tabbing.            (line 2630)
* \{:                                    Reserved characters.
                                                             (line 6272)
* \|:                                    Math symbols.       (line 4564)
* \}:                                    Reserved characters.
                                                             (line 6272)
* \~:                                    Reserved characters.
                                                             (line 6282)
* \~ (tilde accent):                     Accents.            (line 6512)
* ^:                                     Subscripts & superscripts.
                                                             (line 4521)
* _:                                     Subscripts & superscripts.
                                                             (line 4521)
* {...} for required arguments:          LaTeX command syntax.
                                                             (line  444)
* a4paper option:                        Document class options.
                                                             (line  557)
* a5paper option:                        Document class options.
                                                             (line  557)
* abstract environment:                  abstract.           (line 1535)
* array environment:                     array.              (line 1547)
* article class:                         Document classes.   (line  515)
* b5paper option:                        Document class options.
                                                             (line  557)
* book class:                            Document classes.   (line  515)
* bottomnumber:                          Floats.             (line 1371)
* bottomnumber <1>:                      Floats.             (line 1372)
* bp:                                    Units of length.    (line 4304)
* cc:                                    Units of length.    (line 4317)
* center environment:                    center.             (line 1605)
* clock option to 'slides' class:        Document class options.
                                                             (line  630)
* cm:                                    Units of length.    (line 4308)
* dbltopnumber:                          Floats.             (line 1375)
* dbltopnumber <1>:                      Floats.             (line 1376)
* dd:                                    Units of length.    (line 4314)
* description environment:               description.        (line 1671)
* displaymath environment:               displaymath.        (line 1711)
* displaymath environment <1>:           Math formulas.      (line 4484)
* document environment:                  document.           (line 1754)
* draft option:                          Document class options.
                                                             (line  582)
* dvipdfmx command:                      Output files.       (line  351)
* dvips command:                         Output files.       (line  351)
* dvitype command:                       Output files.       (line  351)
* em:                                    Units of length.    (line 4322)
* enumerate environment:                 enumerate.          (line 1786)
* eqnarray environment:                  eqnarray.           (line 1848)
* equation environment:                  equation.           (line 1904)
* equation environment <1>:              Math formulas.      (line 4484)
* etex command:                          TeX engines.        (line  399)
* ex:                                    Units of length.    (line 4322)
* executivepaper option:                 Document class options.
                                                             (line  557)
* figure:                                figure.             (line 1922)
* filecontents:                          filecontents.       (line 1975)
* final option:                          Document class options.
                                                             (line  582)
* first-latex-doc document:              About this document.
                                                             (line  277)
* fleqn option:                          Document class options.
                                                             (line  582)
* flushleft environment:                 flushleft.          (line 2026)
* flushright environment:                flushright.         (line 2052)
* <http://home.gna.org/latexrefman> home page: About this document.
                                                             (line  250)
* in:                                    Units of length.    (line 4301)
* inch:                                  Units of length.    (line 4301)
* indexspace:                            Indexes.            (line 6819)
* itemize environment:                   itemize.            (line 2078)
* landscape option:                      Document class options.
                                                             (line  582)
* latex command:                         Output files.       (line  351)
* latex-doc-ptr document:                About this document.
                                                             (line  274)
* <latexrefman-discuss@gna.org> email address: About this document.
                                                             (line  261)
* legalpaper option:                     Document class options.
                                                             (line  557)
* leqno option:                          Document class options.
                                                             (line  582)
* letter class:                          Document classes.   (line  515)
* letter environment:                    letter.             (line 2180)
* letterpaper option:                    Document class options.
                                                             (line  557)
* list:                                  list.               (line 2185)
* lR box:                                picture.            (line 2342)
* lrbox:                                 lrbox.              (line 6136)
* lshort document:                       About this document.
                                                             (line  284)
* lualatex command:                      TeX engines.        (line  416)
* math environment:                      math.               (line 2242)
* math environment <1>:                  Math formulas.      (line 4484)
* minipage environment:                  minipage.           (line 2254)
* mm:                                    Units of length.    (line 4311)
* mu:                                    Units of length.    (line 4333)
* notitlepage option:                    Document class options.
                                                             (line  582)
* onecolumn option:                      Document class options.
                                                             (line  609)
* oneside option:                        Document class options.
                                                             (line  609)
* openany option:                        Document class options.
                                                             (line  609)
* openbib option:                        Document class options.
                                                             (line  582)
* openright option:                      Document class options.
                                                             (line  609)
* pc:                                    Units of length.    (line 4298)
* pdflatex command:                      Output files.       (line  361)
* picture:                               picture.            (line 2282)
* printindex:                            Indexes.            (line 6815)
* pt:                                    Units of length.    (line 4294)
* quotation:                             quotation and quote.
                                                             (line 2549)
* quote:                                 quotation and quote.
                                                             (line 2549)
* report class:                          Document classes.   (line  515)
* secnumdepth counter:                   Sectioning.         (line 1438)
* slides class:                          Document classes.   (line  515)
* sp:                                    Units of length.    (line 4320)
* tabbing environment:                   tabbing.            (line 2585)
* table:                                 table.              (line 2676)
* tabular environment:                   tabular.            (line 2718)
* textcomp package:                      Text symbols.       (line 6298)
* thebibliography environment:           thebibliography.    (line 3040)
* theorem environment:                   theorem.            (line 3142)
* titlepage environment:                 titlepage.          (line 3155)
* titlepage option:                      Document class options.
                                                             (line  582)
* topmargin:                             Page layout parameters.
                                                             (line 1233)
* topnumber:                             Floats.             (line 1379)
* topnumber <1>:                         Floats.             (line 1380)
* totalnumber:                           Floats.             (line 1383)
* totalnumber <1>:                       Floats.             (line 1384)
* twocolumn option:                      Document class options.
                                                             (line  609)
* twoside option:                        Document class options.
                                                             (line  609)
* usrguide official documentation:       About this document.
                                                             (line  280)
* verbatim environment:                  verbatim.           (line 3172)
* verse environment:                     verse.              (line 3206)
* xdvi command:                          Output files.       (line  351)
* xdvipdfmx:                             TeX engines.        (line  425)
* xelatex command:                       TeX engines.        (line  425)

